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EXTRA-BIBLICAL  SOURCES  FOR 
HEBREW  AND  JEWISH  HISTORY 


EXTEA-BIBLICAL  SOUECES 

FOR   HEBREW  AND 

JEWISH  HISTORY 


TRANSLATED  AND  EDITED  BY 

Rev.  SAMUEL  A.  B.  MERCER,  Ph.D. 

(Munich) 

PBOFKSSOB  OF  HEBREW  AND  OLD  TESTAMENT,   WESTERN  THEOIiOGICAIj  BEMIKABT,  CHICAGO 
AUTHOB  OF   "  THE  OATH  IN  BABYLONIAN  AND  ASSTRUN  UTEBATUBE " 


LONGMANS,    GREEN,    AND    CO. 

FOURTH   AVENUE   &   30TH   STREET,   NEW  YORK 
LONDON,  BOMBAY,  AND  CALCUTTA 

1913 


3^ 


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COPYRIGHT,    191  3,  BY 
LONGMANS,    GREEN,    AND    CO. 


oX 


>  C,\A 


THE* PLIMPTON* PR  ESS 
HORWOOD'MASS'U'S'A 


TO 

MRS.  LYDIA  B.  HIBBARD 

BY   WHOSE   GENEROSITY   IN   FOUNDING   AND   SUPPORTING 

THE    HIBBARD   EGYPTIAN   LIBRARY 

THIS   WORK   HAS   BEEN   MADE   POSSIBLE 


5iy5V42 


PREFACE 

The  period  covered  by  the  term  "Hebrew  and  Jew- 
ish History"  is  taken,  in  this  book,  to  extend  from  the 
beginning  of  Old  Testament  history  down  to  the  final 
destruction  of  the  Jewish  people  as  a  nation  in  the 
reign  of  the  Roman  emperor  Hadrian.  To  the  last 
part  of  the  period  pertain  New  Testament  and  Early 
Church  history.  No  attempt  has  been  made  to  deal 
with  this  subject.  Our  interest  as  to  this  period  is 
confined  to  Jewish  history. 

No  serious  student  of  Hebrew  and  Jewish  history 
is  willing  to  confine  his  reading  to  modern  histories 
and  text-books,  excellent  though  they  may  be.  He 
feels  that  he  ought  to  go  back  of  them  to  the  original 
sources  from  which  they  are  drawn. 

Before  the  present  century  such  an  investigating 
student  had,  as  sources,  the  Hebrew  Bible,  the 
Apocryphal  and  Pseudepigraphical  Books,  the  New 
Testament,  Philo,  Josephus,  Rabbinical  literature,  He- 
rodotus, Tacitus,  and  other  Greek  and  Latin  writers. 
During  the  present  century,  however,  the  new  science  of 
Archaeology  has  thrown  a  flood  of  light  upon  Hebrew 
and  Jewish  history.  Many  inscriptions  have  been 
found,  and  translated,  but  the  translations  are  so 
scattered  in  special  works  and  technical  journals 
that  even  the  specialist  finds  it  a  diflScult  task  to  gain 
access  to  all  of  his  material. 


vm  PREFACE 

The  present  volume  primarily  represents  an  attempt 
to  bring  together  in  an  accessible  form  all  these  new 
sources,  that  is,  all  Cuneiform,  Egyptian,  and  extra- 
biblical  Semitic  sources  for  the  study  of  Hebrew  and 
Jewish  history.  It  also  aims  at  a  collection  of  all 
Greek  and  Latin  historical  sources,  down  to  and  in- 
cluding those  of  the  time  of  Tacitus,  which  throw  an 
independent  ^  light  upon  the  subject.  It  has  been 
considered  unnecessary  to  collect  material  later  than 
that  period  because  of  the  fact  that  it  must  neces- 
sarily have  been  derived  second-hand  from  our  earlier 
sources. 

The  Apocrypha,  Pseudepigrapha,  Josephus,  Philo, 
and  the  New  Testament  are  so  easy  of  access  that  their 
historical  sections  have  not  been  reproduced  here,  but, 
whenever  considered  necessary,  reference  has  been 
given  to  the  more  important  sections  of  them  which 
bear  upon  the  history  of  the  Jews. 

Much  space  has  been  devoted  to  Babylonian  and 
Assyrian  chronological  material.  This  has  been  done 
with  a  view  to  encouraging  the  student  to  build  up  his 
own  chronology.  Egyptian  chronological  lists  are 
very  few  and  fragmentary.  Those  that  we  have  are 
not  as  valuable,  in  any  specific  way,  as  those  of  Baby- 
lonia and  Assyria,  for  Old  Testament  chronology. 
This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  close  contact  between 
Egypt  and  Syria-Palestine  occurred  before  the  occupa- 
tion of  Canaan  by  the  Hebrews.  Egyptian  chronology, 
however,  is  very  valuable  in  a  general  way,  since  the 
whole  field  of  Egyptian  history  from  4241  b.  c,  down 
to  5^5  B.C.,  has  been  chronologically  arranged. 

1  Even  Tacitus  depends,  to  a  considerable  extent,  upon 
Josephus. 


PREFACE  ix 

Translations  of  the  original  Cuneiform,  Egyptian, 
Aramaic,  Greek,  and  Latin  sources  have  been  given 
in  as  literal  a  form  as  possible,  so  as  to  avoid  the  temp- 
tation of  reading  into  the  original  interpretations  which 
a  mere  free  translation  or  paraphrase  would  allow,  but 
which  the  original  would  not  warrant.  The  transla- 
tions, however,  do  not  claim  perfection;  on  the  con- 
trary, they  will  be  found  to  be  very  faulty  in  many 
details,  for  the  diversity  of  texts  really  requires  many 
translators  instead  of  one.  All  translations,  except 
where  noted,  have  been  made  from  the  originals.  The 
translations  of  specialists  in  the  several  fields  have  been 
freely  used  in  a  comparative  way,  but  in  no  case, 
except  where  the  original  was  not  accessible  (and  that 
is  stated  in  the  notes),  has  the  author  failed  to  make 
his  own  translation.  The  translations  most  con- 
sulted have  been;  for  Cuneiform,  Winckler,  Keilin- 
schriftliches  Textbuch  zum  Alien  Testament,  Dritte 
neubearbeitete  Auflage;  Rogers,  Cuneiform  Parallels 
to  the  Old  Testament;  and  for  Egyptian,  Breasted, 
Ancient  Records,  References  to  the  originals  and  to 
other  literature  have  been  given  in  the  notes. 

A  brief  historical  introduction  has  been  given  to 
each  series  of  translations.  This,  it  has  been  hoped, 
will  serve  to  orientate  the  student.  A  series  of  ap- 
pendices has  been  added  with  a  view  to  furnishing 
the  reader  with  material  for  guidance  in  his  study 
of  the  translations  contained  in  this  book  and  also 
of  his  more  accessible  sources.  No  student  need 
now  be  without  full  equipment  for  a  study  of  He- 
brew and  Jewish  history.  He  has  all  the  sources  in 
convenient  form.  They  are:  the  Hebrew  Bible, 
Apocrypha,    Pseudepigrapha,    Josephus,    Philo,    the 


X  PREFACE 

New  Testament,  and  this  present  collection  of  extra- 
biblical  sources. 

The  object  of  this  work  has  not  been  to  write  a 
history,  nor  even  to  discuss  the  bearing  of  these  sources 
on  Hebrew  and  Jewish  history,  but  rather  to  furnish 
the  student  with  material  which  will  enable  him  to 
build  up  a  history  of  the  Hebrew  and  Jewish  people 
for  himself. 

The  sources  have  been  arranged  chronologically 
within  their  several  spheres  (Cuneiform,  Egyptian, 
Semitic,  and  Greek  and  Latin).  The  student  is  thus 
enabled  to  divide  his  history  into  periods,  e.g.,  from 
the  beginning  to  Moses,  from  Moses  to  the  division 
of  the  kingdom,  from  the  division  of  the  kingdom  to 
the  Exile,  from  the  Exile  to  Alexander,  from  Alex- 
ander to  Hadrian,  reading  all  the  sources  illustrating 
the  particular  period  under  consideration  from  the 
different  spheres. 

The  works  of  many  writers  other  than  those  re- 
ferred to  in  the  notes  have  been  used,  but  it  has  been 
thought  best  not  to  encumber  the  pages  with  too 
many  references.  The  same  consideration  has  led  to 
the  omission  of  all  transliterations  of  the  Cuneiform 
and  Egyptian  originals.  These  can  be  readily  found 
in  technical  works  by  those  capable  of  appreciating 
them. 

The  author  wishes  to  express  his  indebtedness  to 
all  workers  in  the  different  fields  which  the  book 
represents,  but  he  especially  wishes  to  thank  his 
pupil,  Mr.  Harold  Holt,  for  his  ready  assistance  in 
preparing  the  work.  The  book  is  in  fact  the  out- 
come of  work  started  two  years  ago  with  Mr.  Holt  in 
a  Semitic  Seminar.    He  also  takes  this  opportunity 


PREFACE  XI 

of   thanking   the   Dean   of   the   Seminary,  the   Rev. 

Wm.  C.  DeWitt,  D.D.,  for  his  helpful  advice  in  many 

particulars. 

SAMUEL    A.    B.    MERCER 

HiBBARD  Egyptian  Library, 
Western  Theological  Seminary,  Chicago, 
March  20,  1913. 


CONTENTS 

PAGE 

ABBREVIATIONS xv 

CUNEIFORM  SOURCES 1 

The  Babylonian  Period 3 

The  Tell  el-Amarna  Period 9 

The  Assyrian  Period 21 

The  New  Babylonian  and  Persian  Periods    ....  67 

Chronological  Matter 63 

The  Babylonian  King  Lists  B  and  A    .     .     .     .  63 

The  Babylonian  Chronicle 66 

The  Ptolemaic  Canon 71 

The  Assyrian  Eponym  List 72 

The  Assyrian  Eponym  Chronicle  with  Notes      .  75 

The  Eponym  Chronicle  for  720-705  b.  c.   .     .     .  85 

Babylonian  and  Assyrian  Months 86 

EGYPTIAN  SOURCES .  87 

The  Old  Kingdom,  2980-2475  b.  c 89 

The  Middle  Kingdom,  2160-1788  b.  c 92 

The  Empire,  First  Period,  1580-1350  b.  c 99 

The  Empire,  Second  Period,  1350-1150  b.  c 123 

Rameses  IV  to  Pesibkhenno  II,  c.  1167-945  b.  c.       .     .  138 

Seshonk  I,  945-924  b.  c 140 

OSORKON   II   TO   THE   CONQUEST   OF  CaMBYSES,  874-525  B.  C.  141 

OTHER  SEMITIC  SOURCES 145 

The  Moabite  Stone 147 

The  Elephantine  Papyri 149 

GREEK  AND  LATIN  SOURCES 156 


XIV  CONTENTS 

PAOB 

APPENDICES 191 

I.    Tabular  View  of  Hebrew  and  Jewish  History  in 

THE  Light  op  Oriental  History 193 

II.    Kings  op  Judah  and  Israel  with  Dates   ....  199 

III.  Kings  of  Babylonia  and  Persia  since  586  with  Dates  199 

IV.  Rulers   of   Egypt    and    Syria    during    the    Greek 

Period  with  Dates 200 

V.    Rulers   op   Syria   and   Judea    in    Maccabban    and 

Roman  Periods  with  Dates 200 

VI.    Roman  Emperors  to  Hadrian 201 

VII.    High  Priests  from  538  b.  c.  to  Caiaphas  36  a.  d.    .  201 

VIII.    The  Seleucidae 203 

IX.    The  Genealogy  op  the  Hasmoneans 204 

X.    The  Herodian  Family 205 

INDEX 207 


MAPS 

Cuneiform  Section between  pages     86-87 

Egyptian  Section "         "      144-145 

Greek  and  Latin  Section "         "     190-191 


ILLUSTRATIONS 

The  Black  Obelisk between  pages     2-3 

The  "Israel  Stela" **        "      88-89 

The  Moabite  Stone "        "  146-147 


ABBREVIATIONS 

CT,  Cuneiform  Texts  in  the  British  Museum. 

MVAG,  Mitteilungen  der  Vorderasiatischen  Gesellschaft, 
BerHn. 

PSBA,  Proceedings  of  the  Society  of  BibHcal  Archaeol- 
ogy, London. 

R,  The  Cuneiform  Inscriptions  of  Western  Asia,  Vols. 
I-V,  by  Major  General  Sir  H.  C.  Rawlinson.  Vols.  I-III, 
First  Edition;   Vols.  IV-V,  Second  Edition. 

RE,  Revue  6gyptologique,  Paris. 

TSBA,  Transactions  of  the  Society  of  Biblical  Archaeol- 
ogy, London. 


CUNEIFORM  SOURCES 


TEE  BLACK  OBELISK 

The  Black  Obelisk  of  Shalmaneser  III  {860-825  b.  c.)  was 
found  by  Austen  Henry  Layard  in  the  central  building  of  the 
palace  at  Nimrud  (Calakh)  in  181^6.  It  is  now  in  the  British 
Museum.  It  contains  an  account  of  the  many  expeditions 
of  Shalmaneser  during  his  long  reign.  There  is  also  a  series 
of  reliefs  which  represents  the  paymerit  of  tribute.  The  second 
relief  from  the  top  represents  the  Assyrian  king  receiving  the 
submission  of  King  Jehu  of  Israel.  The  inscription  over  the 
relief  reads:  *' Tribute  of  Jehu,  of  the  land  of  Omri;  silver*^ 
{page  38  gives  the  translation  of  the  entire  legend). 


THE     BLACK     OBELISK 


THE  BABYLONIAN  PERIOD 

The  importance  of  Babylonian  historical  inscrip- 
tions for  the  student  of  the  Old  Testament  will  be 
better  appreciated  if  a  brief  outline  of  Babylonian 
foreign  history  be  given. 

Already,  twenty-eight  hundred  years  before  Christ, 
the  power  of  one  of  the  city-kings  of  South  Babylonia 
was  so  great  and  extensive  that  it  may  be  termed 
imperial.  Lugal-zag-gi-si,  king  of  the  city-state  of 
Umma,  extended  his  sway  as  far  as  the  Mediterranean 
Sea.  Our  information  about  the  extent  of  his  empire, 
however,  is  very  scanty,  and  it  is  not  until  the  reign 
of  the  famous  Sargon  of  Akkad,  in  North  Babylonia, 
and  of  his  son,  Naram-Sin,  2650  b.  c.  and  2600  b.  c, 
respectively,  that  we  get  a  really  good  glimpse  of  an 
empire  which  could  be  termed,  in  those  days,  world- 
wide, an  empire  extending  from  Elam  and  the  Persian 
Gulf  to  the  Mediterranean,  and  from  the  Arabian 
desert  to  northernmost  Mesopotamia.  Both  these 
rulers  referred  to  themselves  as  "king  of  the  four 
quarters  of  the  world."  Another  South  Babylonian 
city,  namely  Lagash  (modern  Tello),  under  the  leader- 
ship of  its  king  or  patesi  Gudea,  became  so  opulent 
that  wood  from  the  forests  of  the  West  —  cedars  from 
Amanus — and  stone  from  the  mountains  of  Amurru 
(including  Phoenicia  and  Palestine)  were  brought  to 
build  the  king's  palaces  and  temples  for  his  gods. 
He  too  extended  his  dominions  as  far  as  the  Medi- 
terranean. 


•.4;/!l«f  •■'>'•:  i   (JT^NElfFORM    SOURCES 

No  amount  of  reference  and  historical  detail  could 
make  those  ancient  princes  more  real  to  the  mind  of 
our  Twentieth  Century  than  to  consider  that  of  most 
of  them  we  have  statues,  some  in  diorite,  of  a  work- 
manship which  can  be  called  excellent  even  in  the 
light  of  modern  technique;  while  of  all  we  have  in- 
scriptions and  works  of  art,  such  as  the  silver  vase 
of  Entemena,  king  of  Lagash  (2900  b.c),  inscribed 
with  the  coat-of-arms  of  his  city,  and  numerous  cyl- 
inder-seals engraved  in  a  highly  artistic  and  technical 
way,  that  make  five  thousand  years  seem  as  only 
yesterday. 

It  scarcely  requires  such  an  appeal  to  the  art  of  the 
period  of  the  first  Babylonian  dynasty  (2232-1933  or 
2060-1761  B.  c.)  to  realize  the  greatness  of  the  next 
Semitic  king  who,  from  North  Babylonia,  governed  a 
world-wide  empire.  His  famous  stela,  facsimiles  of 
which  are  almost  as  common  in  these  days  as  are 
prints  of  the  Disputa  Theologia  or  the  Sistine  Ma- 
donna, now  stands  in  the  Louvre  and  shows  us 
Khammurabi  himself  receiving  his  famous  code  of 
laws  from  Shamash,  the  sun-god,  just  as  Moses  re- 
ceived his  from  Jehovah.  This  and  many  letters  and 
dispatches  from  his  reign  would  of  themselves  make 
his  name  immortal. 

Khammurabi,  however,  is  known  to  us  not  only  as 
a  great  lawgiver  comparable  with  our  Biblical  Moses, 
but  also  as  a  great  engineer  who  dug  a  net-work  of 
canals  over  his  country  for  the  purpose  of  irrigation 
and  navigation;  a  tireless  architect  and  builder  of 
temples  and  palaces;  a  wise  administrator,  as  we 
learn  from  many  legal  documents  of  his  reign;  and  a 
great  warrior  who  made  his  name  known  and  his 


THE    BABYLONIAN    PERIOD  '5 

influence  felt  from  the  mountains  of  Elam  to  the  shores 
of  the  Mediterranean. 

Khammurabi  should  and  will  interest  historical 
students  in  all  departments  of  culture.  To  the  Old 
Testament  student,  however,  he  is  of  utmost  impor- 
tance not  only  because  of  the  great  similarity  between 
his  laws  and  those  of  Moses,  but  also  because  it  is 
now  conceded  by  practically  all  technical  scholars  that 
he  is  the  self -same  person  as  Amraphel,  king  of  Shinar 
(i.e.,  'Ammu-rabi,  king  of  Sumer)  of  Genesis  14. 

During  the  earlier  days  of  Babylonian  history  Elam 
was  subject  to  the  Semites  of  the  Euphrates  Valley. 
About  2000  B.  c,  however,  we  find  an  Elamite  king, 
Kudur-Mabug  son  of  Simti-Shilkhak,  bearing  the 
title  of  ruler  of  the  Amurru  and  claiming  extension  of 
territory  as  far  as  the  Mediterranean.  Now,  Kudur- 
Mabug  was  the  father  of  Arad-Sin  and  Rim-Sin,  and 
we  know  that  Arad-Sin  was  king  of  the  South  Baby- 
lonian city-state,  Larsa.  The  name  Arad-Sin  is 
Sumerian  and  is  equivalent  in  Semitic  to  Eri-Aku, 
that  is,  Arad  =Eri  =  servant,  and  Aku  is  an  epithet 
of  the  moon-god  Sin.  The  name  in  Sumerian  and 
Semitic  means  "servant  of  Sin."  Further,  it  is  be- 
lieved by  the  most  competent  scholars  that  Eri-Aku 
king  of  Larsa  is  none  other  than  the  Arioch  king  of 
Elassar  of  Genesis  14.  Chedorlaomer  king  of  Elam 
of  the  same  chapter  (a  name  which  corresponds  in 
Elamitic  to  Kudur-Lagamar,  "servant  of  Lagamar," 
an  Elamite  deity)  though  not  yet  identified,  is  probably 
a  near  successor  of  Simti-Shilkhak  who  was  the  suze- 
rain of  Arad-Sin's  father.  As  ruler  of  all  Babylonia  he 
extended  his  influence  even  to  the  "vale  of  Siddim" 
where  for  twelve   years  he   exercised   his   authority. 


6  CUNEIFORM    SOURCES 

With  him  came  westward  Khammurabi,  king  of  Sumer 
or  Babylonia,  Eri-Aku,  king  of  Larsa,  and  Tudhkhulu, 
king  of  Gutium  (Tidal  king  of  Goiim,  or  nations). 
With  them  is  associated  the  name  of  Abraham.  All 
this  happened  in  the  earlier  years  of  Khammurabi's 
reign  before  he  had  developed  an  empire  which 
was  too  large  and  powerful  to  recognize  any  over- 
lord.i 

Khammurabi's  successors  were  not  as  great  as  he, 
though  we  know  from  inscriptions  that  Ammi-ditana 
of  the  same  dynasty  claimed  suzerainty  over  the 
Amurru. 

The  second  Babylonian  dynasty  was  a  period  of 
retrogression  and  hence  of  obscurity.  It  was  succeeded 
by  a  dynasty  of  foreign  kings  called  Kassites  who 
reigned  from  the  seventeenth  to  the  twelfth  century 
B.  c.  It  was  during  the  earlier  part  of  thisiperiod  that 
the  Hittites  made  themselves  felt  in  Mesopotamia, 
although  as  early  as  the  last  king  of  the  first  Baby- 
lonian dynasty,  an  inscription  says:  "at  the  time  of 
Samsu-ditana  (the  last  king  of  the  first  Babylonian 
dynasty)  [came]  the  Khatti  (Hittites)  to  Akkad." 

LUGAL-ZAG-GI-SI,  C.  2800,  B.  C. 

An  inscription  in  the  Sumerian  language  belonging 
to  Lugal-zag-gi-si's  reign  says:  "When  he  (i.e., 
Lugal-zag-gi-si)  had  conquered  from  the  rising  (of 
the  sun)  to  the  setting,  then  he  (i.e.,  his  god  En-Lil) 
made  way  for  him  from  the  lower  sea  (over)  the  Tigris 
and  the  Euphrates  even  to  the  upper  sea  (i.e.,  the  Med- 

1  It  was  not  till  the  31st  year  of  Khammurabi's  reign  that 
he  threw  off  the  yoke  of  Elam. 


THE    BABYLONIAN    PERIOD  7 

iterranean);    from  the  rising  even  to  the  setting  .  .  . 
En-Lil  has  given  to  him."  ^ 

Sargon,  c.  2650  b.  c. 

Sargon,  king  of  Agade,  by  the  royal  gift  of  Ishtar  was 

exalted. 
And  he  had  no  equal  nor  rival.     His  glory  he  poured  out 

over  the  world. 
The  sea  in  the  East  he  crossed. 
And  in  the  eleventh  year,  the  country  of  the  West  in  its 

full  extent  his  hand  subdued. 
He  united  them  under  one  control;   his  image  he  set  up 

in  the  West; 
Their  booty  he  brought  over  in  the  country  of  the  sea. 
He  settled  the  sons  of  his  palace  for  five  hashu  around. 
And  over  the  hosts  of  the  world  he  reigned  supreme.^ 
...  Sargon  who  marched  against  the  Amurru 
And  conquered  the  Amurru;   his  hand  subdued  the  four 

quarters  of  the  world.^ 

GUDEA,  c.  2450  B.  c. 

When  he  (i.e.,  Gudea)  built  the  temple  of  Nin-gir-su, 
Nin-gir-su,  his  beloved  lord  opened  the  way  for  him 
from  the  upper  sea  even  to  the  lower  sea.* 

Khammurabi,  c.  2130  or  1958  b.  c. 

Khammurabi,  powerful  king,  king  of  Babylon,  king  of 
the  four  quarters  of  the  world,  establisher  of  the  land, 

^  Translated  by  Thureau-Dangin,  Die  Sumerischen  und 
Akkadischen  Konigsinschriften,  pp.  154-155. 

^  King,  Chronicles  Concerning  Early  Babylonian  Kings. 
Vol.  II,  pp.  3-5. 

^  King,  op.  city  p.  27,  obv.  §11.  There  are  several  other 
similar  passages  in  the  omens  of  Sargon  and  Naram-Sin. 

*  De  Sarzec  et  Heuzey,  Decouverts  en  Chaldee,  Goudea 
Statue  B,  5,  21  ff. 


8  CUNEIFORM    SOURCES 

the  king  whose  deeds  are  well-pleasing  unto  the  heart  of 
Shamash  and  Marduk,  am  I.^ 
For  (Ash)ratu,  the  bride  of  Anu,  who  hath  attained  to 
dominion,  the  lady  of  strength  and  abundance,  (the 
lady)  of  the  mountain  (whose  worship)  is  carefully 
tended,  the  merciful  lady,  who  for  her  spouse  maketh 
favourable  her  exalted  word,  for  his  lady,  on  behalf  of 
the  life  of  Khammurabi,  the  king  of  the  Amurru,  Itur- 
ashdu  the  rabianu  of  the  (district  of  the)  river,  the  son 
of  Shuban  hath  marvellously  fashioned  a  guardian 
image  worthy  of  her  divinity,  for  her  service  within 
the  dwelling  which  is  beloved  of  her.^ 

Kudur-Mabug,  father  of  Arad-Sin  (Eri-Aku),  c.  time 
of  Khammurabi. 

For  the  God  Nannar,  his  lord,  has  Kudur-Mabug, 
Suzerain  of  Amurru,  son  of  Simti-Shilkhak, 
Because  Nannar  heard  his  prayer,  built 
E-nun-makh,  the  temple  of  Nannar,  for  his  life 
And  for  the  life  of  Eri-Aku  his  son,  king  of  Larsa.^ 


Ammi-Ditana,  2921  or  1849  b.  c. 

Ammi-ditana,  the  mighty  king,  king  of  Babylon,  king  of 
Sumer  and  Akkad,  king  of  the  da-ga-mu  of  Amurru, 
am  I.'* 

^  King,  The  Letters  and  Inscriptions  of  Khammurabi, 
Vol.  I,  No.  57.  There  are  many  other  similar  passages  in 
the  Khammurabi  inscriptions.  For  his  engineering  and 
building,  see  King,  oj).  cit.;  for  his  laws,  see  Harper,  The 
Code  of  Hammurabi;  for  contracts,  see  Kohler  und  Ungnad, 
Hammurabi's  Gesetz. 

2  King,  op.  cit.,  Vol.  I,  No.  66. 

3  C.  T.  XXI;  pi.  33. 

*  King,  op.  cit..  Vol.  II,  No.  100,  obv. 


THE   TELL  EL-AMARNA  PERIOD 

About  1650  B.  c.  Jacob  and  his  family  went  into 
Egypt  and  sojourned  there,  according  to  Biblical 
tradition,  about  four  hundred  and  thirty  years.  This 
was  a  time  of  great  migrations;  and  we  find  that  the 
Hyksos,  a  Semitic  people,  a  branch  of  whom  Jacob  ^ 
and  his  family  may  well  have  been,  entered  Egypt 
and  became  rulers  of  the  land.  This  role  they  played 
for  fully  a  hundred  years. 

The  Kassites  were  now  on  the  throne  of  Babylon, 
and  did  not  prove  themselves  as  mighty  in  foreign 
conquest  as  did  their  predecessors.  The  country  of 
the  Amurru  was  left  alone  and  became  a  temptation 
to  the  ambitions  of  the  great  kings  of  the  eighteenth 
Egyptian  dynasty  (1580-1350  b.  c),  whose  first  pha- 
raoh,  Ahmose  I,  expelled  the  Hyksos  and  cleared  the 
way  for  his  successors'  invasion  of  Syria.  This  Amenho- 
tep  I  did.  His  successor  Thutmose  I  not  only  invaded 
the  country,  but  in  a  series  of  brilliant  battles  con- 
quered the  land  of  the  Amurru  as  far  as  the  Upper 
Euphrates,  where  he  set  up  two  tablets  of  victory. 
The  most  brilliant  of  the  kings  of  this  dynasty  was 
Thutmose  III,  who  in  seventeen  great  campaigns  in 
Asia  (1479-1459  b.  c.)  built  up  a  vast  Asiatic  Empire, 
establishing  its  frontiers  on  the  Upper  Euphrates. 
It  was  in  the  famous  battle  of  Megiddo,  which  he 

^  It  is  interesting  to  note  that  scarabs  of  a  Hyksos  pharaoh 
give  his  name  as  Jacob-her  or  Jacob-el. 


10  CUNEIFORM    SOURCES 

describes  in  great  detail,  that  he  completely  defeated 
the  Syrians.  We  learn  from  the  booty  carried  into 
Egypt  —  chariots  inlaid  with  silver,  gold-plated  char- 
iots, etc.  —  of  the  astounding  civilization  of  Syria 
at  this  period.  Amenhotep  II  and  Thutmose  IV 
carried  on  the  work  of  their  predecessors  in  Syria 
and  Palestine.  Cities  such  as  Tunip  (Baalbec)  were  re- 
modelled in  Egyptian  style;  and  rulers  were  appointed 
over  cities,  such  as  Abdi-Khiba  of  Jerusalem,  who 
witnesses  to  his  appointment  by  the  Egyptian  king. 
The  whole  land  was  referred  to  as  Amurru,  and  per- 
haps was  divided  into  two  sections,  Amurru  and 
Canaan. 

About  this  time  appear  on  the  scene  two  great 
enemies  of  the  Egyptians,  namely,  the  Khatti  (Egyp- 
tian IQieta)  and  the  Khabiri,  who  are,  respectively, 
the  Hittites  and  the  Hebrews  (in  the  wider  sense  of 
the  term).  The  power  of  Egypt  reached  its  greatest 
splendor  in  the  reign  of  Amenhotep  III  (1411-1375 
B.  c.)  who  beautified  imperial  Thebes.  He  married 
the  sister  of  Tushratta,  king  of  the  Mitanni,  and  formed 
alliances  with  other  foreign  princes.  During  the 
latter  part  of  the  reign  of  this  ruler  and  of  his  son 
and  successor,  Amenhotep  IV  (Ikhnaton),  began  the 
famous  correspondence  between  foreign  kings  and 
princes  and  the  pharaohs  which  we  now  know  as  the 
Tell  el-Amarna  letters. 

In  1888  there  were  found  by  a  peasant  woman  at 
Tell  el-Amarna,  the  site  of  the  ancient  capital  of  the 
heretic  king  Ikhnaton,  the  famous  Letters  which  have 
shed  so  much  light  upon  this  period  of  history.  Many 
of  them  unfortunately  have  been  destroyed  or  lost,  but 
there  is  still  a  goodly  number  in  the  museums  of  Lon- 


THE    TELL    EL-AMARNA    PERIOD  11 

don,  Berlin,  Cairo,  etc.  These  have  been  carefully 
translated  and  studied,  and  show  us  an  intimate  and 
extended  correspondence  between  rulers  of  Syria, 
Palestine,  and  other  countries,  and  their  suzerain,  the 
Egyptian  pharaoh.  They  are  almost  entirely  written 
in  the  Babylonian  language  which  was  the  lingua 
franca  of  the  ancient  world,  and  show  the  vast  influence 
that  the  great  culture  of  Babylon  had  already  exer- 
cised upon  the  world.  At  two  places  in  Palestine 
have  similar  reports  been  found,  at  Tell  el-Hesy  (old 
Lachish)  and  at  Ta'annek  in  the  plain  of  Jezreel. 
That  these  letters  belong  to  the  same  general  time 
and  correspondence  as  the  Tell  el-Amarna  letters  is 
proved  by  the  fact  that  they  deal  with  the  same 
general  subjects,  are  written  in  the  same  Babylonian 
cuneiform,  and  actually  mention  two  princes  referred 
to  in  the  Tell  el-Amarna  correspondence,  namely 
Zimrida,  ruler  of  Lachish,  and  Shipti-Baal. 

These  letters  and  reports  show  us  that  during 
the  reigns  of  Amenhotep  III  and  Ikhnaton,  Syria  and 
Palestine  were  being  invaded  by  hostile  peoples  and 
were  beginning  to  slip  away  from  the  control  of  the 
pharaohs.  This  was  due  to  the  fact  that  there  was 
now  sitting  upon  the  throne  of  Egypt  a  theologian 
and  philosopher  rather  than  a  statesman.  He  was  a 
pharaoh  who,  instead  of  governing  his  possessions, 
spent  his  time  in  developing  a  purer  conception  of 
God  than  was  ever  again  realized  by  the  mind  of  any 
Egyptian  till  the  Christian  Era.  Under  Ikhnaton 
the  Hittites  seized  Syria,  the  Hebrews  invaded  Pales- 
tine, and  the  complete  dissolution  of  the  Egyptian 
empire  in  Asia  ensued.  Thus  the  close  of  the  eigh- 
teenth  dynasty   in    1350  b.  c.  saw   a   complete   loss 


12  CUNEIFORM    SOURCES 

of  the  vassal  kingdoms  of  Egypt's  Asiatic  realm  and 
the  Hittites  usurping  the  power.  In  the  nineteenth 
dynasty  Seti  I  (1313-1292)  recovered  Palestine  from 
the  Hittites,  and  Rameses  II,  the  **  Pharaoh  of  the 
Oppression,"  penetrated  as  far  as  north  Syria  but 
without  recovering  the  country.  He  made  a  treaty 
in  1271  B.  c.  with  the  Hittites,  which  is  the  first  docu- 
ment of  the  kind  known  to  history.  During  the 
reign  of  his  successor  Merneptah  (1225-1215)  the 
Israelites  left  Egypt. 

The  Tell  el-Amarna  letters  are  valuable  for  our 
study,  in  this  connection,  for  two  chief  reasons.  First, 
they  give  us  a  good  idea  of  the  condition  of  Palestine 
at  a  period  previous  to  the  entrance  of  the  Israelitish 
tribes,  and  preserve  for  us  letters  actually  written  by 
the  princely  ruler  of  the  city  of  Jerusalem,  which  is 
known  in  these  documents  as  Uru-Salem,  the  city  of 
Salem,  the  same  word  which  occurs  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment as  the  name  of  the  city  of  which  Melchizedek 
was  prince-priest.  Secondly,  they  tell  us  about  the 
invasion  of  the  Hebrews,  for  such  the  Khabiri  were. 
In  this  connection  it  is  well  to  remember  that  there  is 
no  conflict  between  the  fact  that  at  the  time  when  the 
Hebrews  were  entering  Canaan  the  Israelites  were 
still  in  Egypt.  The  terms  "Hebrews"  and  "Israel- 
ites" are  not  conterminous  —  all  Israelites  were 
Hebrews,  but  not  all  Hebrews  were  Israelites.  Thus 
while  the  Israelites  or  Jacob  tribes  were  in  Egypt,  other 
Hebrew  tribes  were  knocking  at  the  door  of  Canaan 
and  seeking  an  entrance  into  that  land  which  their 
brethren  were  to  occupy  later. 


THE     TELL     EL-AMARNA     PERIOD  13 

Letters  of  Abdi-Khiba  King  of  Jerusalem 
c.  1400  B.  c. 

I.  Obv.  Abdi-Khiba  thy  servant  has  spoken  to  my  lord, 
the  king.  At  the  feet  of  my  lord,  the  king,  seven  times  and 
seven  times  do  I  fall.  What  have  I  done  against  my  lord, 
the  king?  They  have  slandered  me  to  my  lord,  the  king, 
saying:  "Abdi-Khiba  has  revolted  against  his  lord,  the 
king."  Now,  as  for  me,  neither  my  father  nor  my  mother 
appointed  me  to  this  place.  The  strong  arm  of  the  king 
brought  me  to  my  father's  house.  Why  should  I  offend  my 
lord,  the  king.f^  So  long  as  my  lord,  the  king,  lives  I  shall 
say  to  the  chief  of  my  lord,  the  king:  "Why  do  you  fav- 
our the  Khabiri  and  are  unfavourable  to  the  native  princes?" 
For  this  reason  they  slander  me  to  my  lord,  the  king. 
Because  I  say:  "The  territory  of  my  lord,  the  king,  will 
be  ruined."  Because  of  this  they  slander  me  to  my  lord 
the  king.  But  let  my  lord,  the  king,  know  that  my  lord, 
the  king,  had  established  a  garrison,  but  .  .  .  Enkhamu 
has  taken  it.  .  .  . 

I.  Rev.  Let  the  king  care  for  his  land,  and  be  heedful 
of  his  land.  The  whole  territory  of  my  lord,  the  king,  has 
fallen  away.  Ilimilku  is  destroying  the  entire  land  of  the 
king.  Let  my  lord,  the  king,  care  for  his  land.  I  say: 
"I  will  go  to  my  lord,  the  king,  and  see  the  countenance  of 
my  lord,  the  king."  But  the  enemy  is  powerful  against 
me;  therefore  I  am  unable  to  come  to  my  lord,  the  king. 
Hence  may  it  seem  right  to  my  lord,  the  king,  to  send  troops 
so  that  I  may  come  and  see  the  countenance  of  my  lord,  the 
king.  As  true  as  my  lord,  the  king,  lives,  whenever  an 
officer  goes  forth  I  say:  "The  land  of  my  lord,  the  king,  is 
going  to  ruin."  If  you  do  not  listen  to  me  all  the  princes 
will  be  lost,  and  my  lord,  the  king,  will  have  no  more 
princes.  Let  the  king  think  of  the  princes  and  let  my  lord, 
the  king,  send  troops.    The  king  has  no  longer  any  tern- 


14  CUNEIFORM    SOURCES 

tory.  The  Khabiri  have  devastated  all  the  territory  of  the 
king.  If  troops  come  this  year  the  territory  will  remain 
my  lord,  the  king's,  if  no  troops  come  the  lands  of  my  lord, 
the  king,  will  be  lost.  To  the  scribe  of  my  lord,  the  king: 
Abdi-Khiba,  thy  servant.  Bring  these  words,  unaltered, 
before  my  lord,  the  king:  "The  whole  territory  of  my  lord, 
the  king,  is  going  to  ruin.'*^ 

II.  To  my  lord,  the  king,  Abdi-Khiba  thy  servant  has 
spoken.  At  the  feet  of  my  lord,  the  king,  seven  times  and 
seven  times  have  I  fallen.  I  have  all  the  words  which  my 
lord,  the  king,  sent.  .  .  .  Let  the  king  know  that  all  lands 
have  declared  enmity  against  me,  therefore  let  the  king  care 
for  his  land. 

Behold  the  territory  of  Gazri,  that  of  Ashkelon  and  the 
city  of  Lachish,  have  given  them  food,  oil,  and  all  they  need. 
Therefore  let  the  king  look  after  the  troops  and  send  troops 
against  the  people  who  have  sinned  against  my  lord,  the 
king.  But  if  there  are  no  troops,  then  there  will  remain 
no  lands  and  no  princes  to  my  lord,  the  king. 

Behold  the  territory  of  the  city  of  Jerusalem;  neither 
my  father  nor  my  mother  gave  it  to  me  —  the  strong  arm 
of  the  king  gave  it  to  me.  Behold  this  act  is  the  act  of 
Milki-lim,  also  the  act  of  the  sons  of  Lapaja  who  are  deliver- 
ing the  land  to  the  Khabiri.  Behold,  O  King,  my  lord,  I 
am  innocent  concerning  the  Kashi.  Let  the  king  ask  the 
officers  if  they  have  done  violence  and  laden  themselves 
with  great  guilt.  .  .  .  Let  the  king  take  heed  to  them  that 
they  support  the  lands  with  their  hands.  Let  the  king 
demand  for  them  much  food,  and  much  oil,  and  many 

^  Abel  und  Winckler.  Der  Thontafelfund  von  El-Amarna, 
No.  102.  It  is*  interesting  to  note  that  a  letter  from 
Shuwardata,  king  of  Kilti  {pp.  cit..  No.  100),  gives  us  to  un- 
derstand that  Abdi-Khiba  is  somewhat  of  an  oppressor. 
Shuwardata  complains  that  Abdi-Khiba  has  taken  his  city 
unprovoked. 


THE     TELL     EL-AMARNA     PERIOD  15 

garments.  Meanwhile  let  Pauru  the  king's  officer  come  up 
to  the  land  of  the  city  of  Jerusalem.  Adaja  is  in  revolt 
together  with  the  garrison.  .  .  .  Let  it  be  known  to  the 
king  that  Adaja  said  to  me,  "Let  us  go  out,  but  do  thou 
not  leave  it  (the  city)." 

Send  me  a  garrison  during  the  year,  send  the  officer  of 
the  king.  ...  I  sent  to  my  lord,  the  king,  5000  .  .  .  when 
the  caravans  of  the  king  were  robbed  in  the  fields  of  Ajalon. 
Let  my  lord,  the  king,  know  that  I  am  unable  to  send  out 
caravans  to  my  lord,  the  king,  —  that  thou  knowest !  Be- 
hold the  king  has  put  his  name  upon  the  territory  of  Jeru- 
salem for  ever,  he  therefore  cannot  abandon  the  territory  of 
the  city  of  Jerusalem. 

To  the  scribe  of  my  lord,  the  king,  Abdi-Khiba  thy  ser- 
vant has  spoken.  At  thy  feet  I  fall.  I  am  thy  servant. 
Bring,  unaltered  before  my  lord,  the  king,  these  words: 
"I  am  an  officer  of  the  king.'*     Many  greetings  to  thee. 

And  an  evil  deed  has  been  done  against  me  by  the  men 
of  Kash.  I  was  almost  slain  in  my  house  by  the  people  of 
Kash.  Let  the  king  make  an  investigation  .  .  .  seven  times 
and  seven  times  .  .  .  my  lord,  the  king,  to  me.^ 

III.  To  the  king,  my  lord,  my  sun.  Abdi-Kliba,  thy 
servant.  At  the  feet  of  my  lord,  the  king,  seven  times  and 
seven  times  have  I  fallen.  Behold  my  lord,  the  king,  has 
put  his  name  upon  the  East  and  upon  the  West.  It  is  slan- 
der that  they  have  spoken  against  me.  Behold  I  am  not  a 
prince,  I  am  an  officer  of  my  lord,  the  king,  even  an  officer 
of  the  king  —  one  who  brings  tribute  to  the  king.  Neither 
my  father  nor  my  mother  but  the  strong  arm  of  the  king 
established  me  in  the  house  of  my  father.  When  .  .  .  the 
officer  of  the  king  came  to  me,  I  gave  into  his  hand  the 
slaves.  When  Shuta,  the  officer  of  the  king  came  to  me 
I  gave  21  female  slaves  ...  to  Shuta,  as  a  present  for  my 
lord,  the  king.    Let  the  king   care  for  his  land.    The  whole 

^  Abel  und  Winckler,  op.  cit.,  No.  103. 


16  CUNEIFORM    SOURCES 

land  of  the  king,  which  they  have  put  at  enmity  with  me, 
will  be  lost. 

The  territory  of  Sheri  as  far  as  Ginti-K^rmil  together 
with  all  the  princes  are  hostile  to  me.  If  one  were  a  seer! 
—  but  I  do  not  see  the  countenance  of  my  lord,  the  king, 
because  hostility  is  established  against  me.  I  am  become 
as  a  ship  on  the  sea.  The  strong  arm  of  the  king  occupied 
Nakhrima  and  Kash,  but  now  the  Khabiri  are  occupying 
the  cities  of  the  king.  There  remains  not  a  prince  to  my 
lord,  the  king.  Everyone  is  destroyed.  Behold,  Turbasa 
has  been  slain  at  the  gate  of  Zilu;  yet  the  king  is  inactive. 
.  .  .  Let  the  king  take  care  of  his  land  ...  let  him  send 
troops  to  the  territory  (of  the  city  of  Jerusalem).  For  if 
no  troops  come  this  year  the  whole  territory  of  my  lord,  the 
king,  will  be  lost.  If  they  do  not  say  in  the  presence  of 
my  lord,  the  king,  that  the  land  of  my  lord,  the  king,  is 
destroyed,  then  all  the  princes  will  be  destroyed.  If  there 
are  no  troops  this  year  let  the  king  send  an  officer  to  take 
me  to  thee  with  my  brothers  that  we  may  die  with  my 
lord,  the  king. 

To  the  scribe  of  my  lord,  the  king:  Abdi-Khiba  thy 
servant.  At  thy  feet  I  fall.  Bring  these  words  unaltered 
before  my  lord,  the  king.     I  am  thy  servant  and  thy  son.^ 

IV  and  VII  (combined).  To  my  lord,  the  king:  Abdi- 
Khiba,  thy  servant.  At  the  feet  of  my  lord,  the  king, 
seven  times  and  seven  times  I  fall.  Behold  has  not  Milki- 
lim  revolted  to  the  sons  of  Lapaia,  and  to  the  sons  of  Arzawa 
so  as  to  demand  the  land  of  the  king  for  them?  Why  does 
not  the  king  summon  the  prince  who  has  done  this  deed 
to  answer?  Behold  the  deed  which  Milki-lim  and  Togi 
have  done  is  this :  after  they  have  taken  the  city  of  Rabuda, 
they  are  now  seeking  to  take  Jerusalem.  If  this  land 
belongs  to  the  king,  why  is  Gaza  against  the  king?  Behold, 
the  land  of  Ginti-Kirmil  belongs  to  Togi,  and  the  people 

^  Abel  imd  Winckler,  op.  ciL,  No.  104. 


THE     TELL     EL-AMARNA     PERIOD  17 

of  Ginti  form  a  garrison  in  Bitsani,  and  the  same  will  hap- 
pen to  us  after  Labaia  and  the  land  of  Shakimi  have  given 
everything  to  the  Khabiri,  Milki-lim  has  written  to  Togi 
and  his  sons:  .  .  .  give  everything  which  they  demand  to 
the  people  of  Kilti.  Shall  we,  therefore,  let  Jerusalem  go? 
The  garrison  which  thou  hast  sent  by  the  hands  of  Khaja, 
the  son  of  Miare,  Addaia  has  taken  and  placed  in  the  house 
in  Gaza,  and  he  has  sent  twenty  men  to  Egypt.  Let  it  be 
known  to  the  king  that  I  have  no  garrison. 

As  the  king  liveth,  such  is  the  case,  Puru  ...  he  has 
departed  from  me  and  is  in  Gaza.  Let  the  king  think  of 
this,  and  let  the  king  send  fifty  garrison-men  to  guard  his 
land.  The  whole  land  of  the  king  has  deserted.  Send 
Yi'en-Khamu,  and  let  him  care  for  the  country  of  the 
king. 

To  the  scribe  of  my  lord,  the  king:  Abdi-Khiba,  thy 
servant.  Bring  these  words  unaltered  before  the  king. 
Many  greetings.     I  am  thy  servant.^ 

V.  To  my  lord,  the  king:  Abdi-Khiba,  thy  servant.  At 
the  feet  of  my  lord,  the  king,  seven  times  and  seven  times 
I  fall.  .Behold,  the  deed  which  Milki-lim  and  Shuardata 
have  done  against  the  land  of  my  lord,  the  king.  They 
have  won  over  the  soldiers  of  Gezer,  the  soldiers  of  Gimti 
(Gath)  and  of  Kilti,  and  have  taken  the  territory  of  Rubuti. 
And  now,  indeed,  a  city  of  the  territory  of  Jerusalem  called 
Bit-Ninib,  one  of  the  king's  cities,  has  been  lost  to  the  people 
of  Kilti.  Let  the  king  listen  to  Abdi-Khiba,  thy  servant, 
and  send  troops  that  I  may  restore  the  land  of  the  king  to 
the  king.  For  if  there  are  no  troops  the  land  of  the  king 
will  be  lost  to  the  Khabiri.^  .  .  . 

VI.  To  my  lord,  the  king;  Abdi-Khiba,  thy  servant. 
At  the  feet  of  my  lord,  the  king,  seven  times  and  seven  times 
I  fall.     Behold  I  am  not  a  prince  but  an  oflBcer  am  I  to  my 

^  Abel  und  Winckler,  op.  dt,  Nos.  105  and  199. 
2  Abel  und  Winckler,  op.  cit.  No.  106. 


18  CUNEIFORM    SOURCES 

lord,  the  king.  Why  has  the  king  .  .  .  not  sent  his  mes- 
senger? .  .  .  Let  the  king  harken  to  Abdi-Khiba,  his  ser- 
vant. Behold  there  are  no  troops.  .  .  .  Let  my  lord,  the 
king,  send  an  officer  to  take  the  princes  with  him,  the  land 
of  the  king.  .  .  .  Let  the  king  take  heed  for  them,  and  let 
him  send  a  messenger  quickly.^ 

Letter  of  Burraburiash,  a  Kassite  King,  to 
Amenhotep  IV,  c.  1375  b.  c. 

To  Napkhu 'ruria,  king  of  Egypt,  my  brother:  Burra- 
buriash, king  of  Karaduniash,  thy  servant,  speaks  thus: 
It  is  well  with  me.  With  thee,  with  thy  land,  thy  house, 
thy  wives,  thy  children,  thy  nobles,  thy  horses,  thy  char- 
iots, may  it  be  exceeding  well.  I  and  my  brother  have 
spoken  friendly  with  one  another,  and  said  thus:  "As  our 
fathers  were  good  friends  so  will  we  be  also."  But  now 
my  merchants  who  went  up  with  Akhutabu  remained  be- 
hind in  Canaan  for  business  reasons.  After  Akhutabu  had 
gone  to  my  brother  (Amenhotep);  in  the  city  of  Khinna- 
tuni  of  Canaan,  Shumadda,  son  of  Balumme,  Shutatua, 
son  of  Sharatum  of  Akko  sent  their  men  and  slew  my  mer- 
chants, and  took  away  their  money.  I  have  sent  Azzu 
to  thee.  Question  him  and  let  him  inform  thee.  Canaan  is 
thy  land  and  its  kings  are  thy  servants.  In  thy  land  violence 
has  been  done  me.  Punish  them,  and  the  money  which 
they  have  taken  away  restore,  and  slay  the  men  who  have 
killed  my  servants,  and  avenge  their  blood.  If  thou  dost 
not  slay  these  men,  they,  on  another  occasion,  will  kill  my 
caravans,  or  thy  messengers,  and  then  messengers  will  cease 
to  pass  between  us.  And  if  that  happens,  they  (the  Ca- 
naanites)  will  fall  away  from  thee.  Afterwards  Shumadda 
cut  the  feet  off  one  of  my  people,  and  kept  him  prisoner, 
and  Shutatua  of  Akko  set  another  on  his  head  and  (thus)  he 
stood  before  him.  Cause  these  men  to  be  brought  before 
1  Abel  und  Winckler,  op.  cit.  No.  174. 


THE     TELL    EL-AMARNA     PERIOD  19 

thee,  and  take  thought  for  my  welfare.  As  a  present  I  have 
sent  thee  a  mina  of  lapis-lazuli.  Send  my  messengers  back 
quickly.  May  I  learn  of  the  prosperity  of  my  brother. 
Do  not  detain  my  messenger.     Let  him  come  quickly.^ 

Letter  of  Rib-Adda  of  Byblus   (Modern  Jebeil,  near 
Beirut),  c.  1375  b.  c. 

Rib-adda  spoke  to  his  lord,  the  king  of  the  lands,  the 
great  king.  May  Ba'alat  of  Byblus  give  power  to  my 
lord,  the  king.  At  the  feet  of  my  lord,  the  king,  my  sun, 
seven  times  and  seven  times  have  I  fallen.  Be  it  known  to 
my  lord,  the  king,  that  Byblus  is  safe,  the  true  servant  of 
the  king.  But  very  powerful  is  the  enmity  of  the  Khabiri 
(Hebrew)  warriors  against  me,  and  may  my  lord,  the  king,  not 
hold  back  from  Sumur  lest  it  completely  join  the  Khabiri  sol- 
diers. By  the  representative  of  the  king  who  was  in  Sumur, 
Byblus  has  been  saved.  Behold,  Pakhamnata,  the  king's 
representative  who  is  in  Sumur,  knows  the  need  which 
oppresses  Byblus.  From  Jarimutta  have  we  secured  means 
of  life.  Very  powerful  is  the  enmity  against  us.  May  the 
king  not  hold  back  from  his  cities.^ 

^  Abel  und  Winckler,  op.  cit..  No.  8.  Cf.  also  No.  9,  which 
is  a  letter  from  Burraburiash  to  the  same  pharaoh,  in  which, 
after  the  usual  greetings,  the  Canaanites  are  represented  as 
having,  in  the  times  of  Kurigalsu,  the  father  of  Burrabur- 
iash, offered  themselves  against  their  suzerain,  the  pharaoh. 
This  offer  Kurigalsu  repudiated.  It  is  not  fitting  for  the 
pharaoh  to  listen  now  to  similar  overtures  from  the  Assyr- 
ians against  Burraburiash. 

2  Abel  und  Winckler,  op.  cit.  No.  80.  Cf.  another  let- 
ter of  the  king  in  which  he  begs  for  aid  from  his  Egyptian  su- 
zerain, and  threatens  to  make  an  alliance  with  a  king  of  the 
Amurru,  as  Yapa-adda  and  Zimrida  did,  if  help  be  not  given. 
This  letter  is  published  by  Bezold  and  Budge,  The  Tell 
el-Amama  Tablets  in  the  British  Museum,  No.  14. 


20  CUNEIFORM    SOURCES 

There  are  other  Tell  el-Amarna  letters  which  are  com- 
munications for  help  against  the  Khabiri,  such  as, 
Abel  und  Winckler,  op.  cit.,  Nos.  110  and  137,  but  they 
are  not  of  sufficient  interest  to  include  here.  See 
Knudtzon,  Die  El-Amarna-Tafeln,  Nos.  271  and  273, 
for  translations. 


THE  ASSYRIAN  PERIOD 

Under  Khammurabi,  sixth  king  of  the  first  Baby- 
lonian dynasty,  Shamshi-Adad  I  was  vassal-prince  at 
Asshur  in  Assyria,  but  the  foundation  of  the  kingdom 
of  Assyria  was  ascribed  to  Zulilu  in  1900  b.  c.  How- 
ever, at  a  very  early  period  Assyria  grew  in  power  at 
the  expense  of  Babylonia.  Shamshi-Adad  III  boasts 
of  having  extended  his  empire  as  far  as  the  Medi- 
terranean, as  perhaps  did  many  of  his  immediate  suc- 
cessors, although  no  definite  mention  of  this  has  as 
yet  been  found.  The  time  came  when  the  Kassite 
ruler  of  Babylonia  was  glad  to  marry  the  daughter 
of  Assur-Yuballidh  of  Assyria,  whose  letters  to  Amen- 
hotep  IV  of  Egypt  have  been  found  at  Tell  el-Amarna. 
The  treaty  did  not  last  long,  as  Assyria  began  to  feel 
its  power;  and,  under  Shalmaneser  I,  the  conqueror 
of  "the  armies  of  the  Hittites  and  the  Aramaeans" 
(1300  B.C.),  she  threw  off  all  obligations  to  Babylonia 
and  claimed  supremacy  in  Western  Asia.  Babylonia 
was  soon  conquered,  the  Hittites  and  the  Egyptians 
were  weakening,  and  Assyria  became  mistress  of  the 
Oriental  world.  Tukulti-Ninib  I  (c.  1275  b.  c),  her 
king,  styled  himself  "king  of  the  four  quarters  .  .  . 
king  of  the  wpper  and  lower  sea."  She,  however, 
suffered  a  reverse  again  about  1250  B.  c,  which  left 
Palestine  free  for  a  time  and  gave  opportunity  for  the 
self-assertion  of  the  Philistines  and  the  formation  of 
the  United  Kingdom  of  Israel. 


22  CUNEIFORM    SOURCES 

Tiglath-Pileser,  who  came  to  the  Assyrian  throne 
in  1100  B.  c,  inherited  more  of  the  old  Babylonian  de- 
sire to  conquer  the  West,  and  was  not  long  in  extending 
his  empire  as  far  as  the  Mediterranean;  for  he  says, 
"60  kings  of  the  countries  of  Nairi,  together  with  those 
who  had  come  to  their  help,  with  my  spear,  even  to 
the  upper  sea  (the  Mediterranean)  I  pursued."  "The 
land  of  the  Hittites  and  the  upper  sea  of  the  West, 
from  the  beginning  of  my  rule  up  to  the  fifth  year  of 
my  reign,  my  hand  hath  conquered."  There  he 
occupied  the  North  Phoenician  coast,  met  and  defeated 
the  Hittites,  and  was  recognized  by  the  Egyptians; 
who,  as  successors  of  the  Hittites  in  Western  Asia, 
sent  him  appropriate  gifts.  After  the  time  of  Tiglath- 
Pileser  the  Assyrian  power  again  began  to  wane,  and 
the  West  was  once  more  left  to  itself.  It  was  now  that 
Rezon,  in  950  b.  c,  founded  a  new  Syrian  dynasty  (cf. 
1  K.  11:23  ff.). 

Shamshi-Adad  III,  c.  1600  b.  c. 

Shamshi-Adad,  king  of  the  universe,  builder  of  the  temple 
of  Ashur;  who  devotes  his  energies  to  the  land  between  the 
Tigris  and  the  Euphrates.  At  the  command  of  Ashur  who 
loves  him,  whose  name  Anu  and  Enlil,  above  the  kings  who 
had  gone  before,  had  named  for  great  things:  the  temple  of 
Enin  which  Erishum,  son  of  Ilushuma,  had  built,  and  whose 
structure  had  fallen  to  ruins:  the  temple  of  Enlil,  my  lord, 
a  magnificent  shrine,  which  according  to  the  plan  of  the 
wise  builders  had  been  planned,  in  Asshur  my  city,  that 
temple  I  roofed  with  cedars;  in  the  entrance  I  placed  doors 
of  cedar  covered  with  gold  and  silver.  The  walls  of  the 
temple  —  upon  silver,  gold,  lapis-lazuli,  sandu-stone,  cedar- 
oil,  choice  oil,  honey  and  butter  I  laid  the  mud-walls.     The 


THE     ASSYRIAN     PERIOD  23 

temple  of  Enlil,  my  lord,  I  enclosed,  and  E-am-kur-kur-ra, 
the  temple  of  the  wild-ox  of  the  lands,  the  temple  of  Enlil, 
my  lord,  in  Asshur  my  city,  I  called  its  name.  When  I 
built  the  temple  of  Enlil,  my  lord,  the  prices  in  Asshur  my 
city  (were):  For  one  shekel  of  silver,  two  gur  of  grain,  for 
one  shekel  of  silver,  twelve  ha  of  oil,  according  to  the  price 
of  Asshur  my  city,  were  bought.  At  that  time  the  tribute 
of  the  king  of  Tukrish  and  of  the  kings  of  the  upper  coun- 
try I  received  in  Asshur  my  city.  A  great  name  and  my 
memorial  stela  I  set  up  in  the  country  of  Laban  on  the 
shore  of  the  great  sea  (Mediterranean).^ 

ASSUR-NAZIR-PAL  II,   884-860  B.  c. 

Assyria  again,  began  under  Assur-nazir-pal  II,  to 
assert  itself,  and  this  time  also  extended  its  empire 
as  far  as  the  Mediterranean  and  the  Phoenician  coast. 
In  his  inscriptions  Israel  is  not  mentioned;  but  we 
know  from  later  references  that  the  house  of  Omri 
was  now  powerful,  while  Patin  reigned  in  Syria  and 
was  subdued  by  Assur-nazir-pal,  before  Arvad,  Byb- 
lus,  Tyre,  and  Sidon  had  paid  tribute.  The  Assyrian 
king  set  up  a  stela  in  this  region,  but  exactly  where  is 
not  certain  —  perhaps  on  the  banks  of  the  Nahr-el- 
Kelb  (Dog  River),  which  flows  through  Beirut,  where 
there  are  five  such  records. 

The  Annals  of  Assur-nazir-pal  II 

From  Kunulua,  the  royal  city  of  Lubarna  of  the  land  of 
Patini,  I  departed,  and  I  crossed  the  river  Orontes  and 
halted.  From  the  river  Orontes  I  departed  and  between 
the  mountains  of  Jaraki  and  Ja'turi  I  marched.     The  land 

^  Messerschmidt,  Keilschrifttexte  aus  Assur  historischen 
Inhalts  I,  No.  2. 


24  CUNEIFORM    SOURCES 

.  .  .  ku  I  traversed,  and  I  halted  by  the  river  Sangura. 
From  the  river  Sangura  I  departed,  and  between  the  moun- 
tains of  Saratini  and  Duppani  I  marched,  and  at  .  .  .  ba 
I  halted.  Into  Aribua,  the  royal  city  of  Lubarna  of  the 
land  of  Patini,  I  entered.  The  city  I  took  for  my  own  pos- 
session, and  grain  and  straw  from  the  land  of  Lukhuti  I 
gathered  and  heaped  up  therein.  I  made  a  feast  in  his 
palace,  and  settled  therein  men  from  Assyria.  While  I 
remained  in  the  city  of  Aribua,  I  captured  the  cities  of  the 
land  of  Lukhuti,  and  slew  many  of  their  inhabitants.  I 
laid  them  waste,  and  destroyed  them  and  burned  them  with 
fire.  I  took  the  people  alive  and  impaled  them  on  stakes 
before  their  cities.  At  that  time  I  marched  to  the  district 
of  Lebanon,  and  to  the  great  sea  (Mediterranean)  of  the  land 
of  the  Amurru  I  went  up.  In  the  great  sea  I  washed  my 
weapons,  and  made  offerings  to  the  gods.  The  tribute  of 
the  kings  in  the  district  of  the  sea  from  the  lands  of  Tyre 
and  Sidon,  and  Byblus,  and  Makhallat,  and  Maisa,  and 
Amurru,  and  Arvad,  which  lies  in  the  midst  of  the  sea; 
silver,  and  gold,  and  lead,  and  bronze,  and  vessels  of  bronze, 
and  garments  of  bright  colored  stuffs,  and  cloth,  and  a 
great  pagutu,  and  a  small  pagutu  and  ushu-wood,  and  ukar- 
innu-wood,  and  teeth  of  a  dolphin,  a  creature  of  the  sea, 
I  received  as  their  tribute,  and  they  embraced  my  feet. 
To  Mount  Amanus  (Anti-Lebanon)  I  climbed  up,  and  beams 
of  cedar  and  cypress,  and  juniper,  and  pine  I  cut  down.  I 
made  offerings  to  my  gods.  A  stela  with  my  deeds  of  valor 
I  made  and  set  up  therein.  The  beams  of  cedar  from  Mount 
Amanus  ...  for  E-shara,  for  my  temple,  and  I  sumptu- 
ously fashioned  a  chamber  of  delight  for  the  temple  of  Sin 
and  Shamash,  the  bright  gods.^ 

^  I  R.  17-26;  Budge  and  King,  Annals  of  the  Kings  of 
Assyria,  pp.  370  ff.  There  are  other  similar  texts  in  which 
this  king  mentions  the  Lebanon  mountains  and  the  great 
sea  of  the  West. 


THE    ASSYRIAN     PERIOD  25 

Shalmaneser  III,  860-825  b.  c. 

In  the  person  of  Shalmaneser  III  we  have  a  great 
mihtary  king  who,  in  spite  of  his  many  wars  with  the 
land  of  the  Namri  in  the  east  and  south  east  of 
Assyria,  with  the  Urartu  of  the  north  west,  and  with 
Babylonia,  which  became  a  mere  protectorate  of 
Assyria  in  852  b.  c,  succeeded  in  leading  six  expedi- 
tions into  Phoenicia  and  Syria.  During  his  first  cam- 
paign in  854  B.  c.  he  attacked  Patin,  Hamath,  and 
Damascus,  and  forced  Aleppo  to  surrender,  but  without 
any  decided  success.  At  Karkar,  the  same  year,  he 
met  the  Western  Allies  from  Hamath,  Damascus, 
and '  Israel  under  the  leadership  of  Bir'idri  (Biblical 
Benhadad  I),  but  was  repulsed,  as  on  two  former 
occasions,  although  taking  much  booty.  After  the 
death  of  Bir'idri,  Ahab,  and  Joram,  Shalmaneser  in 
842  conducted  another  campaign  against  Hazael, 
king  of  Damascus,  "the  son  of  a  nobody,"  who  had 
treacherously  slain  Bir'idri  (2  Kg.  8: 15).  Tyre  and 
Sidon  promptly  sent  gifts,  and  Jehu,  the  murderer 
of  the  kings  of  Israel  and  Judah,  to  gain  the  favour 
of  the  Assyrian  monarch,  paid  a  coronation  tribute. 
Damascus  was  thus  left  to  the  mercy  of  the  Assyrians. 
Shalmaneser  again  attacked  Damascus  in  839  b.  c, 
but  without  complete  success;  and  after  he  was  called 
home  by  internal  troiibles,  Hazael  of  Syria  turned  to 
punish  Israel.  Rebellion  arose  in  Assyria  and  Shal- 
maneser died  in  825  b.  c.  He  was  succeeded  by 
Shamshi-Adad  IV  (825-812  b.  c). 

The  date  842  b.  c.  is  of  peculiar  importance,  because 
by  means  of  it  we  are  enabled  to  settle  definitely  the 
chronology  of  the  Kingdoms  of  Israel  and  of  Judah. 


26  CUNEIFORM    SOURCES 

By  means  of  the  Babylonian  and  Assyrian  chronologi- 
cal lists,  842  B.  c,  is  definitely  settled  as  the  year  in 
which  Jehu  of  Israel  paid  tribute  to  Shalmaneser  III, 
an  account  of  which  is  found  on  the  Black  Obelisk  of 
Shalmaneser.  Now  we  know  from  2  Kg.  9-10  that 
Jehu  slew  the  kings  of  Israel  and  of  Judah.  Therefore 
the  year  of  his  accession  in  Israel  marks  the  beginning 
of  a  reign  in  Judah  also.  According  to  Biblical  reckon- 
ing the  number  of  years  between  Jehu's  accession, 
on  the  basis  of  the  length  of  the  reigns  of  the  kings  of 
Israel,  and  the  division  of  the  kingdom  at  the  death  of 
Solomon,  is  98,  and  the  number  of  years  between 
Jehu's  contemporary's  accession  in  Judah,  namely 
Athaliah,  and  the  division  of  the  kingdom  is  95.  Tak- 
ing 95  to  be  the  more  reliable,  as  we  shall  have  reason 
to  believe,  then  the  division  of  the  kingdom  took 
place  in  937  B.C.  With  this  date  agree  the  Egyptian 
records  of  the  reign  of  Shishak  I,  who  received  the 
refugee  Jeroboam  and  later  invaded  Palestine. 

The  number  of  years  according  to  the  Judean  reckon- 
ing, namely  95,  between  the  death  of  Solomon  and  the 
accession  of  Jehu  and  his  contemporary  in  Judah,  is 
the  more  correct  for  the  following  reason:  Shalmaneser 
III,  in  his  inscription,  mentions  Ahab  as  being  among 
the  allied  kings  who  fought  at  Karkar  in  854.  Now 
Ahab  met  his  death  in  the  battle  of  Ramoth-Gilead 
(1  K.  22),  which  would  be  in  853,  that  is,  eleven  years 
before  the  revolt  of  Jehu.  For  this  period,  namely, 
between  the  death  of  Ahab  and  the  revolt  of  Jehu, 
the  Biblical  account  gives  us  the  reigns  of  Ahaziah 
lasting  two  years,  and  that  of  Jehoram,  twelve  years, 
making  fourteen  years  altogether.  Now  we  know 
that  Ahaziah  had  an  accident  at  his  accession,  and 


THE     ASSYRIAN     PERIOD  27 

undoubtedly  Jehoram  reigned  for  a  time  as  co-regent, 
so  that  the  two  years  are  thus  reckoned  twice,  which 
would  leave  twelve  or  eleven  years  for  the  interval. 
This  would  therefore  correspond  with  the  reckoning 
of  the  northern  kingdom,  and  the  date  937  b.  c.  is 
established  for  the  division  of  the  kingdom  at  the 
death  of  Solomon. 

854  B.C. 

The  Obelisk  Inscription 

In  the  sixth  year  of  my  reign  I  marched  against  the  cities 
which  are  in  the  territory  of  the  river  Balikh.  Giammu, 
lord  of  their  city,  they  had  killed.  I  entered  Til-mar-akhi. 
The  Euphrates  at  high  water  I  crossed.  I  received  the 
tribute  of  all  the  kings  of  the  land  of  the  Hittites.  At  that 
time  Bir'idri  (Benhadad  I)  king  of  Damascus,  Irkhulina  of 
Hamath,  together  with  the  kings  of  the  land  of  the  Hittites 
and  the  seacoast  trusted  in  one  another;  marched  to  make 
war  and  battle  against  me.  By  the  command  of  Ashur 
the  great  lord,  my  lord,  I  fought  with  them;  I  accomplished 
their  defeat.  Their  chariots,  their  horses,  their  utensils, 
their  equipment,  I  took  from  them;  I  destroyed  with 
weapons  20,500  of  their  troops.^ 

The  Monouth  Inscription 

In  the  Eponym  year  of  Daian-Ashur,  in  the  month  of 
Airu,  on  the  14th  day,  I  departed  from  Nineveh,  crossed  the 
Tigris,  approached  the  cities  of  Giammu  on  the  Balikh.  The 
fear  of  my  dominion,  the  brightness  of  my  powerful  arms, 
frightened  them.  They  slew  with  their  own  weapons 
Giammu  their  lord.  Kitlala  and  Til-sha-mar-akhi  I  entered. 
I  even  caused  my  gods  to  enter  his  palaces;  in  his  palaces 

1  Layard,  Inscriptions  in  the  Cuneiform  Character  from 
Assyrian  Monuments,  pp.  89-90. 


28  CUNEIFORM    SOURCES 

I  held  festival.  I  opened  his  treasury;  found  his  treasures. 
His  goods,  his  possessions  I  plundered  (and)  carried  away 
to  my  city  Asshur.  From  Kitlala  I  departed,  I  approached 
Kar-Shulmanu-Asharid.  In  boats  made  of  sheep-skins  I 
crossed  the  Euphrates  a  second  time  at  flood.  The  tribute 
of  the  kings  of'  that  side  of  the  Euphrates,  of  Sanger,  of 
Carchemish,  of  Kundashpi,  of  Kummukh,  of  Arame,  of  Bit- 
Gusi,  of  Lalli,  the  Melidaean,  of  Khaiani  of  Bit-Gabar,  of 
Kalparuda  the  Patinaean,  of  Kalparuda,  the  Gurgumaean, 
silver,  gold,  lead,  copper,  copper-vessels,  I  received  in 
Asshur-utir-asbat,  on  the  mountain  on  the  far  side  of  the 
Euphrates,  on  the  river  Sagur.  This  city  the  Hittites  call 
Pitru.  From  the  Euphrates  I  departed;  I  approached 
Khalman  (Aleppo).  They  feared  my  battle;  they  embraced 
my  feet.  Gold  and  silver  as  their  tribute  I  received.  Sac- 
rifices to  the  god  Adad  of  Khalman  I  offered. 

From  Khalman  I  departed  and  approached  two  cities  of 
Irkhulini  the  Hamathite.  I  captured  Adennu,  Parga, 
(and)  Argana  his  royal  city.  His  booty  possessions;  the 
goods  of  his  palaces  I  caused  to  be  brought  out;  (and)  I 
set  fire  to  his  palaces.  From  Argana  I  departed;  I  ap- 
proached Karkar;  Karkar,  his  royal  city  I  plundered,  I 
destroyed,  I  burned  with  fire.  1,200  chariots,  1,200  horse- 
men, 20,000  men  of  Bir'idri  (Benhadad  I)  of  Damascus; 
700  chariots,  700  horsemen,  10,000  men  of  Irkhulini  of  the 
country  of  Hamath,  2,000  chariots,  10,000  men  of  Ahab  the 
Israelite;  500  men  of  the  Guaeans  (Cilicia);  1000  men  of 
the  Musreans;  10  chariots,  10,000  men  of  the  Irqanatians; 
200  men  of  Matinu-ba'h  the  Arvadite;  200  men  of  the 
Usanateans;  30  chariots,  19,000  men  of  Adunu-ba'li  the 
Shianian;  1000  camels  of  Gindibu  the  Arabian  .  .  .  1000 
men  of  Ba'sa  son  of  Rukhubi  of  Ammon,  these  twelve  kings 
he  took  to  his  assistance  (and)  they  marched  to  make  war 
and  battle  against  me.  With  the  exalted  power  which 
Ashur,  the  lord,  had  given  me,  with  the  powerful  arms 
which  Nergal,  who  walks   before   me,  had  granted  me,  I 


THE     ASSYRIAN     PERIOD  29 

fought  with  them;  from  Karkar  to  Gilzan  I  accomplished 
their  defeat.  14,000  of  their  troops  I  cast  down  with  arms. 
Like  Adad  I  rained  a  deluge  upon  them,  I  heaped  up  their 
bodies,  I  filled  the  plain.  Their  many  troops  with  weapons 
(I  destroyed),  I  caused  their  blood  to  flow  over  the  surface 
of  the  field.  The  field  was  too  small  to  cast  down  their 
bodies,  the  Broad  field  (?)  was  not  sufficient  to  bury  them. 
With  their  bodies  I  dammed  the  Orontes  as  with  a  dam  (?). 
In  that  battle  I  took  from  them  their  chariots,  horsemen, 
horses,  their  teams. 

The  Bull  Inscription 

In  the  sixth  year  of  my  reign  I  departed  from  Nineveh, 
(and)  approached  the  river  Balikh.  (The  land  ?)  feared 
my  powerful  weapons  and  (killed  its  prince)  Giammu.  I 
entered  Til-mar-akhi.  I  took  the  city  for  myself.  I  de- 
parted from  the  district  of  the  Balikh.  The  Euphrates  at 
high  water  I  crossed;  I  received  the  tribute  of  the  kings 
of  the  land  of  the  Hittites.  I  departed  from  the  land  of 
the  Hittites.  I  approached  Khalman  (Aleppo).  I  offered 
(sacrifice  to  the  god  Hadad)  of  E3ialman.  From  Khalman 
I  departed.  I  approached  Karkar.  Bir'idri  (Benhadad  I) 
of  Damascus  (and)  Irkhulini  of  Hamath,  together  with 
twelve  kings  of  the  sea-coast,  trusted  to  their  arms,  and 
marched  to  make  war  and  battle  against  me.  I  fought 
with  them.  25,000  of  their  warriors  I  destroyed  with 
weapons.  Their  chariots,  their  saddle-horses,  their  uten- 
sils, their  equipment  I  took  from  them.  They  fled  to  save 
their  lives.     I  embarked  and  went  to  sea.^ 

850-849  B.  c. 
The  Obelisk  Inscription 

In  the  tenth  year  of  my  reign  I  crossed  the  Euphrates 
for  the  eighth  time;   the  cities  of  Sangara  of  Carchemish  I 

^  Layard,  op.  cit,  pp.  14-16,  46-47. 


30  CUNEIFORM    SOURCES 

captured.     I  marched  to  the  cities  of  Arame,  (and)  Arne, 
his  royal  city,  with  100  of  its  suburbs,  I  captured. 

In  the  eleventh  year  of  my  reign  I  crossed  the  Euphrates 
for  the  ninth  time,  I  captured  cities  without  number.  To 
the  cities  of  the  land  of  the  Hittites  (and)  of  Hamath  I  went 
up;  I  captured  89  cities.  Bir'idri  (Benhadad  I)  of  Damas- 
cus (and)  twelve  kings  of  the  land  of  the  Hittities  trusted 
in  their  arms.     I  accomplished  their  defeat.^ 

The  Bull  Inscription 

In  the  tenth  year  of  my  reign  I  crossed  the  Euphrates 
for  the  eighth  time.  The  cities  of  Sangara  of  Carchemish 
I  destroyed,  wasted,  (and)  burned  with  fire.  From  the  cit- 
ies of  Carchemish  I  departed  (and)  approached  the  cities 
of  Arame.  I  captured  Arne,  the  city  of  his  lordship;  100 
cities  of  its  environs  I  destroyed,  wasted,  (and)  burned  with 
fire.  I  made  a  slaughter  among  them  and  took  away  their 
prisoners.  At  that  time  Bir'idri  (Benhadad  I)  of  Damascus, 
Irkhulini  of  Hamath,  together  with  twelve  kings  of  the 
sea-coast,  trusted  in  each  other,  and  marched  against  me; 
I  accomplished  their  defeat.  Their  chariots;  horsemen, 
implements  of  war  I  took  from  them.  They  fled  to  save 
their  lives. 

In  the  eleventh  year  of  my  reign  I  departed  from  Nine- 
veh and  crossed  the  Euphrates  at  high  water  for  the  ninth 
time.  I  captured  97  cities  of  Sangar;  100  cities  of  Arame 
I  captured,  destroyed,  wasted,  and  burned  with  fire.  I 
reached  the  side  of  the  Amanus;  crossed  Mount  Yaraku; 
climbed  up  to  the  cities  of  Hamath;  captured  the  city  of 
Ashtamaku  with  99  of  its  suburbs.  I  made  a  slaughter  and 
carried  away  prisoners  from  them. 

At  that  time  Bir'idri  (Benhadad  I)  of  Damascus,  Irkhulini 
of  Hamath  with  twelve  kings  of  the  sea-coast  trusted  in  each 
other  and  marched  against  me,  to  give  war  and  battle.     I 

^  Layard,  op.  cit,  pp.  87-91. 


THE     ASSYRIAN     PERIOD  31 

fought  with  them  and  accomplished  their  defeat.  10,000 
of  their  soldiers  I  destroyed  with  weapons;  their  chariots, 
horsemen,  (and)  implements  of  war  I  took  from  them.  On 
my  return  I  captured  Apparasu,  a  fortress  of  Arame.  At 
that  time  I  received  the  tribute  of  Kalparundi  of  Patin, 
silver,  and  gold  bars,  horses,  cattle,  sheep,  stuffs,  and  cloths. 
I  went  up  to  the  Amanus,  I  cut  beams  of  cedar  wood.^ 

846  B.  c. 
The  Obelisk  Inscription 

In  the  fourteenth  year  of  my  reign  I  taxed  ^  the  land  (and) 
crossed  the  Euphrates.  Twelve  kings  marched  against 
me;   with  them  I  fought  (and)  accomplished  their  defeat.^ 

The  Bull  Inscription 

In  the  fourteenth  year  of  my  reign  I  called  out  the  broad 
land  without  number.  I  crossed  the  Euphrates  at  high 
water  with  120,000  troops.  At  that  time  Bir'idr  (Benhadad 
I)  of  Damascus,  Irkhulini  of  Hamath,  with  twelve  kings  of 
the  sea-coast  called  out  their  troops  without  number,  and 
marched  against  me.  I  fought  with  them  and  accomplished 
their  defeat.  I  destroyed  their  chariots  and  horsemen. 
I  took  from  them  their  implements  of  war.  They  fled  to 
save  their  lives.^ 

846-842  B.  c. 

The  Berlin  Inscription 

Shalmaneser,  the  great  king,  mighty  king,  king  of  all  the 
four  quarters,  the  sturdy,  the  bold,  the  rival  of  the  princes 
of  the  world,  the  great  kings,  son  of  Assur-nazir-pal,  king 
of  the  world,  king  of  Assyria,  son  of  Tukulti-Ninib,  king  of 
the  world,  king  of  Assyria,  conqueror  of  Enzi,  Gilzan,  (and) 

1  See  note  1,  p.  29.         ^  g^e  notes  1  and  1,  pp.  27,  29. 

2  or,  levied  troops.         *  See  notes  1  and  1,  pp.  27,  29. 


32  CUNEIFORM    SOURCES 

Khubushkia.  Urartu  I  smote  (?),  their  defeat  I  accom- 
plished. I  came  upon  them  Uke  fire.  Akhuni  of  the  people 
of  Adini,  together  with  his  gods,  the  soldiers  of  his  land,  and 
the  goods  of  his  household  I  seized  for  the  people  of  my  land. 
At  that  time  Bir'idri  (Benhadad  I)  of  the  land  of  Damascus, 
together  with  twelve  princes,  his  helpers,  their  defeat  I 
accomplished.  I  prostrated  like  a  simoon  (?)  29,000  strong 
warriors.  I  cast  into  the  river  Orontes  the  rest  of  the 
soldiers.  To  save  their  lives  they  went  up.  Bir'idri  forsook 
his  land.  Hazael,  the  son  of  a  nobody,  seized  the  throne. 
His  numerous  soldiers  he  summoned;  he  came  forth  to  make 
war  and  battle  against  me.  With  him  I  fought,  (and) 
accomplished  his  defeat.  The  wall  of  his  camp  I  took 
from  him.  To  save  his  life  he  went  up.  To  Damascus  his 
royal  city  I  pursued  him.^ 

The  Obelisk  Inscription 

In  the  eighteenth  year  of  my  reign  I  crossed  the  Eu- 
phrates for  the  sixteenth  time.  Hazael  of  Damascus  to 
battle  marched  out.  1,121  of  his  chariots,  470  of  his  horse- 
men I  took  from  him.^ 

Annaustic  Fragment 

In  the  eighteenth  year  of  my  reign  the  Euphrates  for 
the  sixteenth  time  I  crossed.  Hazael  of  Damascus  trusted 
to  the  great  number  of  his  troops,  and  called  out  his  troops 
in  numbers.  Saniru,  a  peak  in  the  Lebanon  district,  he 
made  into  his  fortress.  With  him  I  fought  and  defeated 
him.  16,000  of  his  soldiers  with  weapons  I  destroyed.  1,121 
of  his  chariots,  470  of  his  horsemen,  with  his  camp  I  took 
from  him.  He  fled  to  save  his  life.  I  pursued  him  and  in 
Damascus,  his  royal  city,  I  shut  him  up.  I  cut  down  his 
parks  and  marched  to  the  mountains  of  the  Haman.  Cities 
without  number  I  destroyed,  wasted,  burned  with  fire,  and 

^  Messerschmidt,  op.  cit,  No.  30.         ^  ggg  ^Q^e  1,  p.  27. 


THE     ASSYRIAN     PERIOD  33 

carried  away  booty  without  number.  I  marched  to  the 
mountains  of  Ba'il-ra'si  (near  Nahr-el-Kelb,  the  Dog  River), 
a  mountain  which  is  near  the  head  of  the  sea,  and  I  set  up 
my  royal  portrait.  At  that  time  I  received  tribute  of  the 
Tyrians,  Sidonians,  and  of  Jehu  of  the  land  of  Omri.^ 

Obelisk  Legend  Beneath  the  Reliefs 

Tribute  of  Jehu,  of  the  land  of  Omri;  silver,  gold,  a  ves- 
sel of  gold,  a  zukut  of  gold,  basins  of  gold,  dalani  of  gold, 
bars  of  lead,  sceptres  (.f*)  for  the  hand  of  the  king,  (and) 
balsam  woods  I  received  from  him.^ 

839  B.  c. 

The  Obelisk  Inscription 

In  the  twenty-first  year  of  my  reign,  the  Euphrates  for 
the  twenty-first  time  I  crossed.  Against  the  cities  of  Hazael 
of  Damascus  I  marched.  I  captured  four  of  his  cities.  The 
tribute  of  the  Tyrians,  Sidonians,  (and)  Byblians  I  received.^ 

Adad-Nirari  IV,  812-783  b.  c. 

Adad-Nirari  IV  grandson  of  Shalmaneser  III  suc- 
ceeded to  the  Assyrian  throne  in  812.  The  importance 
of  his  reign  lies  in  his  triumphs  in  Media  and  Baby- 
lonia, although  he  made  four  campaigns  in  the  West 
in  the  years  806,  805,  803,  and  797,  without  much 
apparent  success.  He  seems,  however,  to  have  humil- 
iated Damascus  and  Mari'  (Benhadad  III). 

Inscription  from  Calakh  (Nimrud) 

The  palace  of  Adad-Nirari,  the  great  king,  the  powerful 
king,  king  of  the  world,  king  of  Assyria,  the  king  over  whom 

1  III  R.  5,  No.  6.  2  Layard,  op.  cit,  pi.  98,  No.  2. 

'  See  note  1,  p.  27. 


34  CUNEIFORM    SOURCES 

from  his  boyhood  Ashur,  king  of  the  Igigi,  had  watched, 
and  had  presented  him  with  a  kingdom  wholly  beyond  com- 
pare, whose  lordship,  like  the  tree  of  life,  over  the  people  of 
Assyria  he  had  proclaimed,  and  had  established  his  throne; 
the  lofty  priest  who  adorns  E-Sharra,  the  unwearied,  who 
holds  the  command  of  E-kur;  who  in  the  service  of  Ashur 
his  lord  goes  about,  and  had  cast  down  at  his  feet  the  kings 
of  the  four  quarters  of  the  earth;  who  has  conquered  from 
Siluna,  which  is  in  the  east,  the  lands  of  Saban,  EUipi,  Kar- 
kar,  Araziash,  Mesu,  Madai,  Gizilbunda,  in  its  whole  extent, 
Andiu,  whose  location  is  far  distant,  the  slopes  of  the  moun- 
tain, in  their  whole  extent  to  the  coast,  of  the  great  sea  of 
the  east;  who  conquered  from  the  banks  of  the  Euphrates, 
the  Hittite  country,  Amurru  in  its  entirety.  Tyre,  Sidon 
the  land  of  Omri,  Edom,  Palastu  (Philistia),  even  to  the  coast 
of  the  great  sea  of  the  West,  had  cast  themselves  at  my  feet. 
I  laid  tribute  and  taxes  upon  them. 

Against  Damascus  I  marched,  I  shut  up  Mari',  the  king 
of  Damascus,  in  Damascus  his  royal  city.  The  fear  of  the 
brightness  of  Ashur  my  lord  smote  him,  and  he  took  my  feet 
and  did  obeisance.  2,300  talents  of  silver,  20  talents  of  gold, 
3,000  talents  of  copper,  5,000  talents  of  iron,  colored  gar- 
ments, linen,  an  ivory  bed,  an  ivory  couch  with  inlaid  bor- 
der, his  possessions,  his  goods  in  unmeasured  number  in 
Damascus,  his  royal  city,  in  his  palace  I  took.  All  the  kings 
of  Chaldee  did  obeisance.  I  laid  upon  them  for  the  future 
tribute  and  taxes.  Babylon,  Borsippa,  and  Kutha  brought 
pure  offerings  to  the  oracles  of  the  god  Bel,  Nabu,  and 
Nergal.^ 

Nebo  Statue  from  Calakh 

To  Nabu,  the  powerful,  the  exalted,  the  child  of  the 
majestic  leader,  the  strong  prince,  son  of  Nudimmut,  whose 
command  is  exalted,  the  messenger  of  wise  things,  who 

1  I  R.,  35,  No.  1. 


THE    ASSYRIAN     PERIOD  35 

rules  over  all  heaven  and  earth,  who  knows  all  things,  whose 
ear  is  wide  open,  who  holds  the  tablet  stylus,  who  takes  the 
hand  of  the  prisoner,  the  merciful,  the  sorcerer,  with  whom 
is  the  power  of  cleansing  and  bewitching,  whose  power  is 
beyond  dispute,  without  whom  naught  is  determined  in 
heaven,  the  compassionate,  the  forgiving,  whose  conde- 
scension is  good,  who  dwells  in  Ezida,  which  is  in  Calakh, 
the  great  lord,  his  lord  for  the  life  of  Adad-Nirari  the  king 
of  Ashur,  his  lord,  and  for  the  life  of  Sammuramat  (Semir- 
amis)  mistress  of  the  palace,  his  mistress,  by  Bel-tarsi-ilu-ma 
governor  of  Calakh,  Khamadi,  Sirgana,  Temeni,  laluna,  for 
his  life,  for  the  well-being  of  his  house,  and  his  people,  that 
illness  may  not  befall  his  posterity.  Let  every  other  prince 
trust  in  Nabu,  in  another  god  trust  not.^ 


TiGLATH-PlLESER  IV,    745-727   B.  C. 
2  K.  15-16;   1  Chr.  5;    2  Chr.  28;  Is.  66 

Another  period  of  Assyrian  weakness  followed  until 
Tiglath-Pileser,  a  novus  homo,  came  to  the  throne.  He 
was  called  in  Babylonian  Pulu,  which  is  the  same  word 
as  that  used  in  the  Bible,  namely,  Pul.  His  name 
also  occurs  in  the  Bible  both  as  Tiglathpileser  and  as 
Tiglathpilneser.  In  the  early  part  of  his  reign  at  the 
request  of  the  Babylonians  he  freed  them  from  the 
Aramaeans  and  became  virtual  king  of  Babylonia, 
although  Nabunessar  still  retained  the  title. 

Meanwhile  the  Urartu  in  the  North- West  (one  of 
whose  kings,  Sarduris  II,  called  himself  king  of  Suri 
or  Syria)  were  becoming  powerful.  Tiglath-Pileser 
proceeded  West  and  met  Sarduris  and  defeated  him. 
In  740  Arpad  was  taken,  and  as  a  result  all  north 

1  I  R.,  35,  No.  2. 


36  CUNEIFORM    SOURCES 

Syria  submitted  (2  K.  11-13).  Trouble  arose  in  the 
East,  and  Tiglath-Pileser  was  forced  to  turn  his  atten- 
tion to  Armenia  and  Media,  and  during  his  absence 
from  the  West  nineteen  states  revolted.  In  738  he 
appeared  again  in  the  West,  and  the  states  were 
forced  to  pay  him  tribute.  Among  them  were  Da- 
mascus under  its  king  Rezon,  and  Israel  under 
Menahem. 

From  738-735  Tiglath-Pileser  was  again  in  the  East, 
and  Rezon  of  Syria  and  Pekah  of  Israel  tried  to  per- 
suade Ahaz  of  Judah  to  rebel  against  him;  and  because 
Ahaz  was  unwilling  to  do  so  they  began  to  enrich  them- 
selves at  his  expense.  Ahaz,  accordingly,  appealed  to 
Tiglath-Pileser,  who  promptly  responded  and  again 
appeared  in  the  West  in  734.  This  time  he  conquered 
the  Philistine  city  of  Ashdod,  and  Hanno  of  Gaza 
was  defeated  and  fled  to  Egypt.  He  then  overran 
Syria  and  Israel  and  carried  away  many  into  captivity. 
Pekah  submitted  but  was  shortly  afterward  slain  by 
an  assassin,  and  Tiglath-Pileser  appointed  Hoshea 
as  his  successor.  In  732  Damascus  was  overthrown 
and  Rezon  put  to  death. 

Tiglath-Pileser  now  turned  to  Babylonia  where,  in 
his  absence,  troubles  had  arisen.  In  728  as  a  result 
of  his  brilliant  victories  he  was  crowned  King  of  Baby- 
lonia, and  died  in  the  following  year. 

Tiglath-Pileser  was  really  a  very  great  king.  He 
extended  his  mighty  empire  not  only  over  the  whole 
of  Assyria  and  Babylonia,  but  also  over  Syria,  a  part 
of  Palestine,  and  the  land  of  the  Philistines.  However, 
the  disorganized  condition  of  his  own  kingdom  at  his 
accession  required  his  whole  lifetime  to  bring  into 
order. 


THE     ASSYRIAN     PERIOD  37 


Annals,  738  b.  c. 

In  the  course  of  my  campaign  (I  received)  the  tribute  of 
the  kings  of  the  (land  of  the  Hittites  .  .  .  Azariah  of  Ja*udi  ^ 
like  .  .  .  Azariah  of  Ja'udi  in  .  .  .  without  number  exalted 
to  heaven  .  .  .  with  eyes  as  from  heaven  ...  by  means 
of  an  assault  of  foot-soldiers  .  .  .  (the  advance)  of  the 
powerful  troops  of  Asshur  they  heard,  and  their  hearts  were 
afraid  .  .  .  (their  cities)  I  destroyed,  wasted,  (burned  with 
fire)  .  .  .  who  had  allied  with  Azariah  and  strengthened 
him  .  .  .  like  vinestocks  .  .  .  was  heard  ,  .  .  where  the 
way  was  difficult  .  .  .  was  closed  (?)  and  high  .  .  .  was 
situated  and  its  exit  ...  he  made  deep  ...  he  set  his 
arms  in  order  against  ...  he  made  them  carry  ...  his 
great  (men)  .  .  .  like  a  wall  .  .  .  Azariah  .  .  .  my  royal 
palace  .  .  .  tribute  like  (the  Assyrian  I  laid  upon  them) 
.  .  .  KuUani  (?)  (the  Calneh  of  Amos  6:  2  and  Calno  of  Is. 
10:9)  .  .  .  the  cities  Usnu,  Siannu,  Si[mirra],  Rashpuna 
(?)  on  the  sea  coast,  together  with  the  cities  as  far  as  the 
mountain  of  Saue,  a  mountain  which  extends  to  the  Leba- 
non, and  Mount  Ba'lisapuna  as  far  as  Mount  Ammanu 
(Anti-Lebanon),  the  mountain  of  the  Urkarinu  wood  and 
Sau  in  its  entirety,  the  district  of  the  city  of  Kar-Hadad, 
the  city  of  IQiatarikka  (Hadrach,  Zech.  9: 1),  in  the  district 
of  the  city  of  Nuqudina,  Mount  Khasu,  with  the  cities  of 
its  environs,  the  city  of  Ara,  in  their  order,  with  the  cities 
of  their  environs,  Mount  Sarbua,  in  its  entirety,  the  cities 
of  Ashkhani,  Jadabi,  Mount  Yaraqu  in  its  entirety,  the 
cities  .  .  .  EUitarbi,  Zitanu  up  to  the  city  of  Atinni  .  .  . 
the  city  of  Bumame,  nineteen  districts  of  Hamath,  together 
with  the  cities  of  its  environs  on  the  coast  of  the  Western 

*  This  is  not  Azariah  (Uzziah)  of  Judah  (2  K  15:  1-2),  as 
was  formerly  thought,  but  the  name  of  a  king  of  a  well- 
known  district  of  Sam'al  (Zenjirli). 


38  CUNEIFORM    SOURCES 

sea,  which  they  in  sin  and  evil  had  taken  for  Azariah,  I 
added  to  the  territory  of  Assyria.  My  officers  I  set  over 
them  as  governors,  39,300  people  I  deported  .  .  .  and  in 
the  district  of  the  city  of  Ku  .  .  .  settled  them.  1,223 
people  in  the  district  of  Ulluba  I  settled. 

The  tribute  of  Kushtashpi  of  Kummukh,  Rezon  of  Damas- 
cus, Menahem  of  Samaria,  Hiram  of  Tyre,  Sibittibi'li  of 
Gebal  (Byblus),  Urikki  of  Que,  Pisiris  of  Carchemish,  Eni-el 
of  Hamath,  Panammu  of  Sam*al,  Tarkhulara  of  Gurgum, 
Sulumal  of  Melid,  Dadilu  of  Kasku,  Uassurmi  of  Tabal, 
Ushkhitti  of  Tuna,  Urballa  of  Tukhan,  Tukhamme  of  Ish- 
tunda,  Urimmi  of  Khushimna,  Zabibe,  the  queen  of  Arabia, 
gold,  silver,  lead,  iron,  elephant  hide,  ivory,  colored  gar- 
ments, linen  stuffs,  purple  and  red  stuffs,  ushu  wood,  ukar- 
inu  wood,  everything  valuable,  the  royal  treasure,  fat  sheep, 
whose  pelts  were  dyed  red,  winged  birds  of  heaven,  whose 
pinions  were  dyed  purple,  horses,  mules,  oxen,  and  sheep, 
camels,  male  and  female,  with  their  young,  I  received.^ 

Annals,  733-732  b.  c. 

...  his  (Rezon  of  Damascus)  warriors  I  took  prisoner 
.  .  .  cast  down  with  my  arms  .  .  .  the  chariot  drivers 
and  .  .  .  their  arms  I  broke,  their  chariots  and  their  horse- 
men I  took  ...  his  warriors  who  carried  bows  .  .  .  who 
carried  shields  and  spears  I  took  prisoners  with  my  hands, 
their  line  of  battle  I  broke.  He  fled  alone  to  save  his  life 
and  .  .  .  like  a  gazelle  {^)  entered  the  gate  of  his  city.  His 
leaders  alive  I  pierced  with  spears  and  set  them  up  as  an 
object  lesson  (?)  to  his  land.  45  warriors  of  the  camp  .  .  . 
I  collected  about  his  city,  and  like  a  bird  in  a  cage  I  shut  him 
up,  in  his  parks  ...  his  plantations,  without  number,  I 
cut  down,  and  left  not  one.  .  .  .  Kliadara,  the  paternal  home 

^  Rost,  Die  Keilschrifttexte  Tiglat-Pilesers  Illy  Bd.  II, 
pis.  XX-XXI,  XV-XVI. 


THE     ASSYRIAN    PERIOD  39 

of  Rezon  of  Damascus  .  .  .  (where)  he  was  born,  I  besieged, 
I  took.  800  people  with  their  goods  .  .  .  their  cattle,  and 
sheep  I  took  away.  750  prisoners  of  the  city  of  Kurussa 
.  .  .  prisoners  of  Irma,  550  prisoners  of  Mituna,  I  took 
away.  591  cities  ...  of  16  districts  of  Damascus  I  de- 
stroyed like  a  deluge  heap.  .  .  .  Samsi,  queen  of  Aribi, 
who  had  trampled  on  the  oath  of  Shamash  .  .  .  city  .  .  . 
city  of  Ezasi.  .  .  .  Aribi  in  the  land  of  Saba  (.?),  her  people 
in  her  camp  .  .  .  before  my  powerful  arm  bowed  themselves 
camels,  female  camels,  as  her  tribute  she  brought  before 
me.  A  resident  I  set  over  her.  The  Bir'a  I  cast  down  at 
my  feet.  Mas'a,  Tema,  the  Saba,  Kliaiappa,  Badana,  the 
Khatti,  the  Idiba*il  in  this  territory  of  the  West,  whose 
dwelling  is  far  distant,  the  glory  of  my  dominion  cast  down 
[tribute  of  my  dominion],  gold,  silver,  camels,  female  camels, 
spices  of  every  kind,  their  tribute  they  carried  into  my 
presence  like  one  man,  they  kissed  my  feet  ...  a  palace 
worthy  of  my  royalty  I  built.  .  .  .  I-di-bi'lu  I  placed  as 
resident  in  the  land  of  Mu-us-ri.  [Bit-Omri]  all  of  whose 
cities,  on  my  former  campaigns  I  had  added  [to  my  terri- 
tory] .  .  .  into  captivity  had  carried,  and  left  for  him 
Samaria  alone,  Pekah  their  king  [they  had  deposed]  .  .  . 
like  a  storm  wind  ...  a  district  of  Bit  .  .  .  prisoners  of 
.  .  .  city  of  -bara,  Q25  prisoners  of  the  city  .  .  .  prisoners 
of  Khinaton,  650  prisoners  of  Qana  (?).  400  prisoners  of 
.  .  .  650  prisoners  of  Ir  .  .  .  the  people  with  their  herds 
I  carried  away  .  .  .  the  cities  of  Aruma,  Marum.  .  .  .  Mit- 
inti  of  Ashkelon  had  sinned  against  my  oath,  and  from  me 
had  fallen  away.  He  saw  the  defeat  of  Rezon,  and  fell 
into  terror.  Rukibtu,  the  son  of  Mitinti  seated  himself 
on  his  throne.  In  order  to  save  his  life  he  came  before  me, 
and  besought  me  .  .  .  into  his  city  I  entered,  15  cities  [of 
its  environs,  I  took  from  his  land  and]  gave  them  to  Idi- 
bi'il  of  Arubu.^ 

1  Rost,  op.  ciU  pl.  XXII-XXIII,  XVIII. 


40  CUNEIFORM    SOURCES 


Small  Inscription 

.  .  .  the  city  of  Khatarikka  to  Mount  Sana  .  .  .  the 
cities  of  Gubli,  Simirra,  Arqa,  Zimirra,  .  .  .  the  cities  of 
Usnu,  Siannu,  Ri'raba,  Ri'sisu  .  .  .  cities  on  the  coast  of 
the  upper  sea  I  captured.  Six  of  my  officials  I  set  over 
them  as  governors,  the  city  of  Rashpuna,  on  the  coast  of 
the  upper  sea.  .  .  .  The  city  of  Gal'a,  the  city  of  Abilakka, 
which  at  the  entrance  of  Bit-Omri  (Israel)  .  .  .  the  broad 
Naphtali  (?)  in  its  entirety  I  added  to  Assyria.  My  offi- 
cials as  governors  I  set  over  them.  Hanno  of  Gaza  fled  be- 
fore my  arms  and  escaped  to  Egypt.  The  city  of  Gaza  I 
captured,  his  goods,  his  possessions,  his  gods  I  carried  away 
.  .  .  my  royal  portrait  I  set  up  in  the  palace  of  Hanno  and 
.  .  .  added  to  the  gods  of  their  land  .  .  .  [tribute  and 
taxes]  I  laid  upon  them  ...  I  overwhelmed  and  like  a  bird 
he  fled.  ...  I  brought  him  back  to  his  place  .  .  .  gold, 
silver,  colored  garments,  linen  stuffs  ...  I  received  .  .  . 
Bit-Omri  .  .  .  the  whole  of  its  people,  their  goods  to  Assyria 
I  carried  away.  As  Pekah,  their  king,  they  had  deposed, 
Hoshea  I  established  as  king  over  them.  Ten  talents  of 
gold  .  .  .  talents  of  silver  I  received  as  a  present  from 
them.^ 

Tablet  from  Nimrud 

Tribute  of  Kushtashpi  of  Kummukh,  Urikke  of  Que, 
Sibittibi'l  of  Gebal,  Pisiris  of  Carchemish,  Eni-el  of  Hamath, 
Panammu  of  Sam'al,  Tarkhulara  of  Gurgum,  Sulumal  [of 
Melid,  Dadilu  of  Kaska],  Uassurme  of  Tabal,  Ushkhitti  of 
Tuna,  Urballa  of  Tukhan,  Tukhamme  of  Ishtunda,  Urimme 
of  Khushimna,  Matanbi'l  of  Arvad,  Sanipu  of  Bit-Amman 
(Ammon),  Salamanu  of  Moab,  Mitinti  of  Ashkelon,  Jehoa- 
haz  of  Judah,  Kaushmalaka  of  Edom,  Mus  .  .  .,  Hanno  of 

1  III  R.  10,  No.  2. 


THE     ASSYRIAN     PERIOD  41 

Gaza,  gold,  silver,  lead,  iron,  tin,  colored  garments,  linen 
stuffs,  cloths  of  his  land,  red,  every  valuable  thing,  products 
of  the  sea,  and  land,  products  of  their  land,  royal  treasure, 
horses,  mules,  teams  ...  [I  received].^ 


Sargon  II,  722-705  B.  c. 

2  K.  17;    Is.  20 

In  722  at  the  end  of  the  reign  of  Shalmaneser  IV 
or  immediately  after  his  death  and  at  the  time  of  the 
accession  of  Sargon  II,  who  was  not  of  royal  blood,  the 
city  of  Samaria  fell  after  a  siege  of  about  three  years. 
27,209  of  the  inhabitants  of  Israel  were  deported  and 
their  places  were  taken  by  people  from  various  lands 
which  the  Assyrians,  now  at  the  zenith  of  their  power, 
had  conquered  (2  K.  17).  Israel  now  became  a 
province  of  Assyria. 

In  721  Sargon  was  busy  with  Babylonian  affairs. 
Merodach-Baladan  (Is.  39: 1)  whom  we  meet  in  2 
K.  20  as  Berodach-Baladan  revolted  and  was  crowned 
king  of  Babylonia  in  721.  In  720  a  Western  rebellion 
broke  out  under  the  leadership  of  Ilu-bi'di  (or  Yau- 
bi'di),  king  of  Hamah,  of  which  we  hear  nothing  in  the 
Old  Testament.  Damascus,  Samaria,  and  other  places 
were  involved.  This  brought  down  the  wrath  of  Sar- 
gon, and  they  were  defeated  one  after  another,  and 
many  were  deported  to  Assyria. 

This  chastisement  lasted  until  710,  when  Sargon 
was  again  needed  in  the  West.  He  quickly  responded 
and  the  allies  were  defeated.  The  remaining  years 
of  Sargon's  reign  were  occupied  in  the  North  and 
East. 

1  II  R.  67. 


42  CUNEIFORM    SOURCES 

The  year  of  the  fall  of  Samaria  (722  b.  c.)  is  another 
important  date  for  Biblical  chronology.  From  842, 
the  accession  of  Jehu,  to  722,  the  fall  of  Samaria,  accord- 
ing to  Assyrian  inscriptions,  there  are  120  years.  The 
Biblical  reckoning  for  the  same  period  makes  143  years, 
a  difference  of  23.  Now  Menahem,  at  the  time  of 
his  accession  in  738  (2  K  15: 19),  paid  tribute  to  Pul, 
king  of  Assyria,  as  we  learn  from  the  Assyrian  inscrip- 
tions. This  shows  that  the  Biblical  chronology  from 
842  to  738  corresponds  with  the  Assyrian  chronology. 
But  the  Bible  reckons  41  years  from  738  to  722  which, 
according  to  Assyrian  chronology,  should  be  16  years, 
a  difference  of  25.  The  surplus  years  seem  to  come 
in  the  reigns  of  Menahem  (10  years),  and  Pekah  (20 
years).  This  seems  quite  clear  from  the  fact  that 
four  years  after  the  accession  of  Menahem,  which 
was  in  738,  Tiglath-Pileser  invaded  Israel,  putting 
Pekah,  the  successor  of  Pekahiah,  son  of  Menahem, 
to  death.  That  is,  from  the  accession  of  Menahem 
to  the  death  of  Pekah  —  three  reigns  —  only  four 
or  five  years  elapsed,  and  Hoshea  began  to  reign  in 
734  or  733  b.  c. 

In  2  K  17-18  we  learn  that  Shalmaneser  was  the 
conqueror  of  Samaria.  As  Shalmaneser  does  not 
mention  the  event  in  his  royal  accounts,  we  can  feel 
pretty  certain  that,  although  he  attacked  the  city  of 
Samaria,  he  did  not  succeed  in  overthrowing  it  before 
his  death.  Sargon  tells  us  in  more  places  than  one 
that  he  was  the  conqueror  of  Samaria.  The  Hebrew 
writer  may  well  have  made  an  error  as  Sargon  was  the 
immediate  successor  of  Shalmaneser  and  took  Samaria 
in  the  first  year  of  his  reign. 


THE     ASSYRIAN     PERIOD  43 


The  Fall  of  Samaria,  722-721  b.  c. 

In  the  beginning  of  my  reign  and  in  the  first  year  of  my 
reign  ...  I  besieged  Samaria  and  took  .  .  .  inhabitants 
I  carried  away.  50  chariots  I  collected  there  as  a  royal 
force.  ...  I  set  up  again  and  made  more  populous  than 
before.  People  from  lands  which  I  had  taken  I  settled 
there.  My  men  I  set  over  them  as  governors.  Tribute  and 
taxes  like  the  Assyrian  I  set  over  them.^ 


Campaigns  against  Samaria,  Gaza,  and  Hamath 

From  the  beginning  of  my  rule  to  the  fifteenth  year  of 
my  reign  I  accomplished  the  defeat  of  Khumbanigash  of 
Elam  in  the  environs  of  Dur-ilu.  I  besieged  and  captured 
Samaria.  I  carried  away  27,290  of  its  inhabitants,  I 
collected  there  50  chariots.  The  remainder  of  them  I  per- 
mitted to  retain  their  goods,  put  my  governors  over  them, 
and  I  laid  the  tribute  of  former  kings  upon  them. 

Hanno,  king  of  Gaza,  had  come  with  Sib'e  the  tartan  of 
Egypt,  to  Rapikhi  against  me,  to  offer  battle  and  slaughter. 
Their  defeat  I  accomplished.  Sib'e  feared  the  onset  of  my 
arms,  fled  and  was  no  more  found.  Hanno,  king  of  Gaza, 
I  took  prisoner.  The  tribute  of  Pir'u,  king  of  Musri,  Samsi, 
queen  of  Arabia,  It'amara  the  Sabaean,  gold,  the  produce 
of  the  mountains,  horses,  camels  I  received. 

Yaubi'di  of  Hamath,  a  soldier  who  had  no  claim  to  the 
throne,  a  Hittite,  a  wicked  man,  had  set  his  mind  on  the 
kingdom  of  Hamath,  caused  Arpad,  Simirra,  Damascus,  and 
Samaria  to  rebel  against  me,  and  united  them  and  prepared 
for  battle.  The  troops  of  Ashur  I  collected  and  besieged 
him  and  his  soldiers  in  his  favorite  city  of  Karkar.  I  cap- 
tured and  burned  Karkar.     I  flayed  him  and  killed  the  rebels 

^  Winckler,  Die  Keilschrifttexte  Sargons,  I,  4;   II,  1. 


44  CUNEIFORM    SOURCES 

in  those  cities,  and  established  peace.  200  chariots  and 
600  horsemen  I  collected  among  the  inhabitants  of  Hamath 
and  added  to  my  royal  forces.^ 


Attack  on  Hamath  and  Gaza,  720  b.  c. 

In  the  second  year  of  my  reign  Ilu-bi'di  of  Hamath  .  .  . 
collected  his  numerous  troops  at  Karkar.  The  oath  of 
Ashur  he  despised  .  .  .  Arpad,  Simirra,  Damascus,  Samaria, 
he  made  rebellious  against  me  .  .  .  Sib'u,  his  tartan,  he 
called  to  his  side.  He  marched  against  me  to  make  battle 
and  slaughter.  In  the  name  of  Ashur,  my  lord,  I  defeated 
him.  Sib'u  fled  alone  like  a  shepherd  whose  sheep  are 
stolen,  and  disappeared.  Hanno  I  took  prisoner,  and 
brought  in  chains  to  Asshur,  my  city.  I  destroyed,  wasted, 
and  burned  Rapihu,  and  carried  off  9,033  men  with  their 
goods.2 

Inscription  from  Calakh,  717  b.  c. 

Sargon,  the  exalted  prince,  who  in  the  environs  of  Dur- 
ilu  with  Khumbanigash,  king  of  Elam,  fought,  and  accom- 
plished his  defeat;  who  conquered  the  land  of  Judah,  whose 
location  is  distant;  who  destroyed  Hamath;  whose  hands 
have  taken  its  prince  Yaubi'di  prisoner.^ 


Cylinder  Inscription,  713  b.  c. 

[Sargon]  who  conquered  the  broad  Bit-Khumria,  who 
at  Rapikhi  (Raphia)  accomplished  the  defeat  of  Musri, 
and  carried  Hanno,  king  of  Gaza,  prisoner  to  the  city  of 
Asshur.'* 

1  Winckler,  op.  cit,  I,  pp.  96  ff;   II,  p.  30  f. 

2  See  note  1,  p.  43. 


^  feee  note  1,  p.  43. 

3  Winckler,  op.  cit,  I,  168;   II,  48. 

*  Winckler,  op.  city  II,  43. 


THE     ASSYRIAN    PERIOD  45 

Campaign  against  Ashdod,  711  b.  c. 

Is.  20 

Azuri,  king  of  Ashdod,  planned  in  his  heart  to  bring  no 
more  tribute,  and  sent  to  the  kings  of  his  vicinity  to  stir 
up  enmity  against  Assyria.  Because  of  the  evil  he  had 
done  I  removed  his  lordship  over  the  people  of  the  land,  and 
appointed  his  brother  Akhimiti  to  the  kingship  over  them. 
But  the  Hittites,  planning  evil,  hated  his  rule,  raised  to 
the  throne  Yamani,  who  had  no  claim  to  it,  who,  like 
them,  knew  no  reverence  for  authority.  In  the  anger  of 
my  heart  I  did  not  collect  the  mass  of  my  troops,  I  did  not 
rally  my  forces.  With  my  soldiers  who  did  not  depart 
from  my  side,  in  the  place  where  I  was  staying,  I  marched 
against  Ashdod.  Yamani,  who  heard  from  afar  the  ap- 
proach of  my  column,  fled  to  the  borders  of  Egypt,  which 
lies  before  Melucha,  and  was  seen  no  more.  Ashdod,  Gimtu 
(Gath),  Ashdudimmu  I  besieged,  I  conquered.  I  seized 
as  booty  his  gods,  his  wife,  his  sons  and  daughters,  pos- 
sessions and  goods,  the  treasures  of  his  palaces,  together 
with  the  people  of  his  land.  Those  cities  I  took  again,  and 
I  caused  to  dwell  in  them  people  of  the  lands,  which  were 
the  spoil  of  my  hands,  from  the  lands  of  the  East.  I  set  my 
oflBcers  over  them,  I  added  them  to  the  people  of  Assyria, 
they  gave  obedience.  The  king  of  Melukha  who  among 
...  an  inaccessible  place,  a  road  .  .  .  whose  fathers  for 
a  long  time,  since  the  epoch  of  the  Moon  god,  had  sent  no 
ambassadors  to  the  kings,  my  fathers,  to  pay  respects,  he 
heard  afar  of  the  power  of  Ashur,  Nabu,  and  Marduk;  the 
fear  of  my  royal  majesty  covered  him,  and  terror  was  poured 
over  him.  He  cast  him  into  bonds  and  fetters  of  iron, 
and  they  brought  him  before  me  in  Assyria  —  a  long 
journey.^ 

1  Winckler,  op.  cit,  I,  114  f.,  II,  33  f. 


46  CUNEIFORM    SOURCES 

Another  Account  of  the  Campaign  against  Ashdod 

/*.  20 

In  the  ninth  (Annals  —  eleventh)  year  of  my  reign  I 
marched  to  the  .  .  .  coast  of  the  great  sea  .  .  .  Azuri 
king  of  Ashdod  .  .  .  Akhimeti  ...  his  twin  brother  I 
raised  to  rule  over  them  .  .  .  tribute  and  taxes  of  my  lord- 
ship like  those  of.  .  .  .  They  placed  on  the  throne  over 
them  Yamani  a  soldier  ...  to  punish  the  people  of  Phil- 
istia,  Judah,  Edom,  Moab,  those  who  live  by  the  sea,  and 
brought  tribute  and  presents  to  Ashur  my  lord.  Planning 
hostiUties  to  rebel  against  me,  they  sent  their  presents  to 
Pir'u,  king  of  Egypt,  a  prince  who  could  not  help  them, 
that  he  might  set  himself  in  hostility  to  me,  they  invited 
him  into  a  confederation.  I,  Sargon,  the  legitimate  ruler, 
who  honors  the  oath  of  Nabu  and  Marduk,  and  guards  the 
name  of  Ashur,  I  sent  my  troops  across  the  Tigris  and 
Euphrates  at  the  time  of  flood,  Yamani,  their  king,  who 
had  trusted  to  his  own  power,  heard  afar  the  advance  of 
my  column.  The  fear  of  Ashur,  my  lord,  cast  him  down, 
to  .  .  .  which  is  on  the  banks  of  the  river  .  .  .  his  land 
...  far  away  ...  he  fled  .  .  .  Ashdod.^ 

Sennacherib,  704-682  b.  c. 

2  K.  18-19;  2  Chr.  32;  Is.  36-37 

Sargon's  son  and  successor  was  Sennacherib,  in  whose 
reign  Merodach-Baladan  again  became  troublesome. 
After  establishing  himself  in  Babylon,  Merodach- 
Baladan  sent  an  embassy  to  Hezekiah  of  Judah  to 
congratulate  him  on  his  recovery  from  illness  (2  K. 

1  Winckler,  op.  cit,  I,  186  f.,  II  44  f.  There  is  another 
account  of  this  same  campaign,  but  too  fragmentary  for  any 
practical  use. 


THE     ASSYRIAN     PERIOD  47 

20: 12  ff.,  and  Is.  39),  and  especially  to  stir  up  trouble 
for  Sennacherib.  This  brought  down  upon  him  the 
wrath  of  the  Assyrian  king,  who  attacked  and  defeated 
him. 

Meanwhile  the  West  was  again  in  a  state  of  rebel- 
lion. Hezekiah  of  Jerusalem,  the  conqueror  of  the 
Philistines  (2  K.  18),  and  fortifier  of  Jerusalem  (2 
K.  20;  2  Chr.  32)  was  looking  toward  Egypt  for  help 
against  Assyria.  So  were  the  Phoenicians  and  the 
Philistines.  Ekron  even  went  so  far  as  to  imprison 
its  Assyrian-appointed  king  Padi.  Sennacherib  was 
not  slow  to  appreciate  the  situation  and  came  West 
in  701  B.  c.  The  allies,  led  by  Luli  of  Sidon  and  Tyre 
and  Hezekiah  of  Judah,  were  defeated.  First  Ekron 
was  destroyed,  then  46  cities  of  the  Judean  Shephelah, 
and,  finally,  after  the  capture  of  Lachish,  Jerusalem 
was  besieged.  Before  much  progress  was  made,  how- 
ever, Sennacherib  was  called  off  by  troubles  at  home. 
It  seems  that  Sennacherib  made  a  second  attempt 
to  reduce  Jerusalem,  but  without  success.  In  681 
he  met  his  death  at  the  hands  of  assassins  in  his  own 
country  (cf.  2  K.  19:37). 

Campaign  against  Jerusalem.    Taylor  Prism,  701  b.  c. 

2  K.  18-19;   2  Chr.  22;   Is.  36-37 

In  my  third  campaign  I  marched  against  the  Land  of  the 
Hittites.  The  fear  of  the  splendor  of  my  dominion  over- 
whelmed Luli  king  of  Sidon,  and  he  fled  far  away  on  the  sea 
and  died.  Sidon,  the  great,  Sidon  the  less,  Bit-Zitte,  Sar- 
iptu  (Zarephath),  Makhalliba,  Usher,  Akzib,  and  Akku 
(Akko),  his  strong  cities,  defended  by  walls,  provisioned  and 
provided  with  water,  his  garrison  cities,  the  might  of  the 
arms  of  Ashur,  my  lord,  overwhelmed  them,  and  they  bowed 


48  CUNEIFORM    SOURCES 

at  my  feet.  I  placed  Tuba'lu  (Ethbaal)  upon  the  royal 
throne  over  them,  and  fixed  upon  him  yearly  and  unchang- 
ing taxes  and  tribute  for  my  dominion.  Minkhimmu 
(Menahem)  of  Shamsimuruna,  Tuba'lu  (Ethbaal)  of  Sidon, 
Abdili'ti  of  Arvad  (Arados),  Urumilki  of  Gebal  (Byblus), 
Mitinti  of  Ashdod,  Budu'ilu  of  Bit-Ammanaa  (Bit-Am- 
mon),  Kammusunadbi  of  Moab,  Malik-rammu  of  Edom, 
all  kings  of  the  Amurru-country,  districts  of  great  extent, 
brought  rich  presents  before  me,  for  the  fourth  time  and 
kissed  my  feet. 

But  Sidqa,  king  of  Ashkelon,  who  had  not  submitted  to 
my  yoke,  the  gods  of  his  father's  house,  himself,  his  wife, 
his  sons,  his  daughters,  his  brothers,  his  seed  of  his  father's 
house  I  carried  away,  and  brought  him  to  Assyria.  Shar- 
ruludari,  son  of  Rukib-tu,  their  former  king,  I  appointed 
over  the  people  of  Ashkelon,  and  the  payment  of  taxes, 
presents,  to  my  dominion,  I  laid  upon  him,  that  he  might 
bear  my  yoke. 

In  the  course  of  my  campaign  I  besieged  Beth-Dagon, 
Joppa,  Benebarqa,  Azuru,  cities  of  Sidqa,  which  had  not 
quickly  submitted  to  my  feet,  I  captured  them  and  car- 
ried off  their  booty.  The  governors,  princes,  and  people 
of  Ekron,  who  had  cast  Padi,  their  king,  into  iron  fetters, 
who  had  been  faithful  to  the  commands  and  compact  of 
Assyria,  and  had  given  him  over  to  Hezekiah  of  Judah  in 
a  hostile  manner  —  their  hearts  feared.  They  summoned 
the  kings  of  Musri,  the  bowman,  chariots,  and  horses  of  the 
king  of  Melukhkha,  forces  without  number,  and  they  came  to 
their  help.  In  the  neighborhood  of  Altaqu  their  line  of 
battle  was  drawn  up  against  me,  their  arms  they  conse- 
crated. With  the  help  of  Ashur,  my  lord,  I  fought  with 
them  and  accomplished  their  defeat.  The  commanders  of 
the  chariots,  and  the  sons  of  the  king  of  Musri  with  the  com- 
manders of  the  chariots  of  the  king  of  Melukhkha  my  hands 
captured  alive  in  battle.  I  besieged  and  captured  Altaqu, 
and  Tamna  (Timnath)  and  carried  away  their  booty. 


THE     ASSYRIAN     PERIOD  49 

I  drew  near  to  Amkaruna  (Ekron).  I  slew  the  gover- 
nors and  princes  who  had  committed  sin,  and  hung  their 
bodies  on  poles  around  the  city.  Citizens  who  had  com- 
mitted wickedness  and  offence  I  counted  as  spoil.  I  pro- 
claimed pardon  to  the  rest  of  them  who  had  not  committed 
sin  and  wickedness  [and]  in  whom  no  guilt  was  found.  Padi, 
their  king,  I  brought  out  of  Jerusalem,  and  set  him  on  the 
throne  of  dominion  over  them,  and  the  tribute  of  my  domin- 
ion I  laid  upon  him.  And  of  Hezekiah,  the  Judaean,  who  had 
not  submitted  to  my  yoke,  46  strong  cities,  with  walls,  the 
smaller  cities  which  were  around  them,  without  number, 
by  the  battering  of  rams  and  the  assault  of  engines  the  at- 
tack of  foot-soldiers,  mines,  breaches,  and  axes,  I  besieged 
and  captured  them.  200,150  men,  young,  old,  male,  female, 
horses,  mules,  asses,  camels,  oxen,  and  sheep  without  num- 
ber I  brought  forth  from  them  and  counted  as  booty.  [Hez- 
ekiah] himself  I  shut  up  like  a  caged  bird  in  Jerusalem  his 
royal  city.  I  cast  up  entrenchments  against  him,  and  whom- 
soever came  forth  from  the  gates  of  the  city  I  punished  him. 
His  cities  which  I  had  plundered,  I  separated  from  his  land, 
and  gave  them  to  Mitinti,  king  of  Ashdod,  Padi,  king  of 
Amqaruna,  and  Sil-bel,  king  of  Gaza,  and  diminished  his 
land.  Beside  the  former  taxes,  paid  yearly,  I  added  the 
tribute  and  presents  of  my  dominion,  and  laid  these  upon 
them.  As  for  Hezekiah,  the  fear  of  the  majesty  of  my 
dominion  overwhelmed  him  and  the  Urbi,  and  his  regular 
troops,  whom  he  had  brought  in  to  strengthen  Jerusalem,  his 
royal  city,  deserted.  With  30  talents  of  gold,  800  talents 
of  silver,  precious  stones,  stibium,  uknu-siones,  couches  of 
ivory,  seats  of  ivory,  elephant-hide,  ivory,  ushu  and  ukar- 
innu-woodf  diverse  objects,  a  heavy  treasure,  and  his 
daughters,  the  women  of  his  palace,  male  musicians,  female 
musicians,  he  despatched  after  me  to  Nineveh,  my  capital 
city.  He  sent  his  ambassador  to  give  tribute  and  make 
submission.^ 

1  I  R.,  37-42. 


50  CUNEIFORM    SOURCES 


Another  Account  of  the  Campaign  of  701  b.  c. 

The  kingdom  from  Luli,  king  of  Sidon,  I  took  away;  I 
seated  Tuba'lu  on  his  throne  and  laid  on  him  tribute  of  my 
dominion;  I  destroyed  the  broad  district  of  Judah;  I  laid 
my  yoke  upon  Hezekiah  its  king;  the  people  of  Tumur, 
who  inhabit  a  steep  mountain,  I  overwhelmed  with  arms; 
the  city  of  Ukku,  with  all  its  dwellings,  I  destroyed  like  the 
mound  of  a  deluge;  the  people  of  Khilakki,  inhabitants  of 
the  hill  country,  I  destroyed  with  arms;  their  cities,  I  de- 
stroyed, wasted,  burned  with  fire;  I  conquered  Tilgarimmu 
(Togarmah?),  of  the  border  of  Tabal,  and  turned  it  into 
arable  land.^ 

Sennacherib  at  Lachish,  701  b.  c. 

Sennacherib,  king  of  the  world,  king  of  Assyria,  seated 
himself  on  the  throne  and  the  prisoners  of  Lachish  marched 
before  him.^ 

Sennacherib's  Campaign    against    Arabia,   c.  688  b.  c. 

.  .  .  Telkhunu,  the  queen  of  Arabia,  in  the  midst  of  the 
desert,  from  her  I  took  away  1000  camels.  The  fear  of  my 
dominion  cast  her  down,  and  likewise  Khazail.  They  left 
their  tents  and  fled  to  Adummatu,  whose  location  is  in  the 
desert,  a  thirsty  place  where  there  is  neither  provision  nor 
places  to  drink.^ 

Herodotus  on  Sennacherib's  Egyptian  Campaign 

The  next  king  was  a  priest  of  Hephaistos,  called  Sethos. 
This  monarch  despised  and  neglected  the  w^arrior  class  of 

1  I  R.,  43. 

2  Layard,  Monuments  of  Nineveh^  II,  pi.  23. 

^  Ungnad,  Vorderasiatische  Schriftdenkmaler,  I,  pp.  73  ff. 


THE     ASSYRIAN     PERIOD  51 

the  Egyptians,  as  though  he  did  not  need,  their  services. 
Among  other  indignities,  he  went  so  far  as  to  take  from  them 
the  lands  which  they  had  possessed  under  all  the  previous 
kings,  consisting  of  twelve  acres  of  choice  land  for  each 
warrior.  Afterward,  therefore,  when  Sennacherib,  king  of 
the  Arabians  and  Assyrians,  marched  his  vast  army  into 
Egypt,  the  warriors  one  and  all  refused  to  come  to  his 
(Sethos)  aid.  On  this  the  priest,  greatly  distressed,  entered 
into  the  inner  sanctuary,  and  before  the  image  of  the  god 
bewailed  his  impending  fate.  As  he  wept  he  fell  asleep, 
and  dreamed  that  the  god  came  and  stood  at  his  side,  bidding 
him  to  be  of  good  cheer,  and  go  boldly  forth  to  meet  the  Ara- 
bian host,  which  would  do  him  no  hurt,  as  he  himseK  would 
send  him  help.  Sethos,  then,  relying  on  the  dream,  col- 
lected such  of  the  Egyptians  as  were  willing  to  follow  him, 
who  were  none  of  them  warriors,  but  traders,  artisans,  and 
market  people;  and  with  these  he  marched  to  Pelusium,  where 
the  passes  are  by  which  the  country  is  entered,  and  there 
pitched  his  camp.  As  the  two  armies  lay  there  opposite 
one  another  there  came  in  the  night  a  multitude  of  field- 
mice  which  devoured  all  the  quivers  and  bow-strings  of  the 
enemy  and  ate  the  thongs  by  which  they  managed  their 
shields.  Next  morning  they  commenced  their  flight  and 
great  multitudes  were  slain  as  they  had  no  arms  with  which 
to  defend  themselves.  There  stands  to  this  day  in  the 
temple  of  Vulcan  a  stone  statue  of  Sethos,  with  a  mouse  in 
his  hand,  and  an  inscription  to  this  effect:  "Look  on  me  and 
learn  to  reverence  the  gods."     (Herodotus,  II,  141.) 

POLYHISTOR  AND  AbYDENTJS   ON  SeNNACHERIB 

And  after  all  the  other  exploits  of  Sennacherib  he  adds 
the  following:  "He  remained  in  power  eighteen  years  and 
died  by  the  hand  of  his  son  Ardumuzanus,  in  an  uprising." 
These  things  says  Polyhistor. 

From  Abydenus  concerning  Sennacherib.     At  this  time 


52  CUNEIFORM    SOURCES 

we  find  Sennacherib,  who  was  the  twenty-fifth  at  least  in 
the  succession  of  kings.  He  reduced  Babylon  beneath  his 
sway.  .  .  . 

After  the  reign  of  Sennacherib's  brother,  Akises  became 
king  over  the  Babylonians.  He  reigned  less  than  thirty  days, 
being  murdered  by  Merodach-Baladan,  who  then  forcibly 
held  the  kingdom  for  six  months.  Baldanus  (Merodach- 
Baladan)  was  killed  by  a  certain  Elibus,  who  then  became 
king.  In  the  third  year  of  the  reign  of  Elibus,  Sennacherib, 
king  of  the  Assyrians,  gathered  an  army  together  against 
the  Babylonians,  defeated  them  in  battle,  and  ordered 
the  captive  king  and  his  friends  to  be  led  into  Assyria.  Hav- 
ing subdued  the  Babylonians,  he  set  up  his  son  Asordanius 
as  king,  withdrawing  himself  and  proceeding  to  Assyria. 
After  him  there  ruled  Nergilus,  who  was  cut  off  by  his  son 
Adramelus.  Adramelus  was  killed  in  turn  by  Axerdis,  who 
was  his  brother  on  his  father's,  though  not  on  his  mother's 
side.  He  pursued  the  army  to  Byzantium  and  there  shut 
it  up.     (Eusebii,  Chron.  I,  ed.  Schoene,  Berlin,  1875.) 


ESARHADDON,   680-668  B.  c. 
iK.  19:37;    Is.  37:38;   Ezra  4:2 

Esarhaddon  had  other  visions  than  his  forefathers. 
Now  that  Phoenicia,  Syria,  and  Palestine  were  con- 
quered he  turned  his  attention  to  Egypt.  True,  he 
made  a  campaign  against  Tyre  and  Sidon,  and  he 
mentions  many  western  vassals,  among  whom  was 
Manasseh  of  Judah,  but  his  interest  was  in  Egypt. 
His  first  attempt  to  conquer  Egypt  was  made  in  673 
B.  c.  He  failed  because  he  had  not  laid  his  plans  with 
suflicient  care.  In  670,  however,  he  was  successful 
and  conquered  the  Egyptian  king  Taharka  (Tirhaka), 
taking  Memphis  and  making  the  Delta  an  Assyrian 


THE     ASSYRIAN    PERIOD  53 

province.  Esarhaddon  was  compelled  to  return  home 
because  of  internal  affairs,  and  in  the  meantime  the 
Egyptians  rebelled.  He  was  thus  forced  to  set  out 
again  on  another  expedition,  during  which  he  died  in 
668  B.  c. 

Prism  A 

[Esarhaddon]  the  conqueror  of  the  city  of  Sidon,  which 
lies  in  the  midst  of  the  sea;  he  who  overwhelmed  all  its 
houses;  its  walls,  its  dwellings  I  tore  down,  cast  them  into 
the  sea,  and  made  the  place  where  they  stood  a  ruin.  Abd- 
milkot  its  king,  who  had  fled  into  the  sea  before  my  arms,  I 
drew  like  a  fish  out  of  the  sea  and  cut  off  his  head.  His 
treasures  and  goods,  gold,  silver,  precious  stones,  elephant 
hide,  ivory,  ushu-woody  urkarinu-wood,  colored  cloth,  and 
cloth  of  every  kind,  precious  things  of  his  palace,  I  plundered 
in  a  mass;  its  people  without  number,  cattle,  sheep,  and 
asses  I  carried  away  to  Assyria.  I  collected  the  kings  of 
the  Hittite  country,  and  all  those  of  the  sea-coast.  A  city 
in  another  place  I  created  and  called  its  name  Kar-Esar- 
haddon.  The  people,  the  spoil  of  my  bow,  from  the  hill 
country  and  from  the  Eastern  Sea,  I  settled  there,  and  over 
them  I  set  my  oflScials  as  governors. 

Adumu,  a  fortress  of  Aribi,  which  Sennacherib  king  of 
Assyria,  my  father,  my  begetter,  had  captured,  and  brought 
its  gods  to  Assyria;  Hazael,  king  of  Aribi  came  with  a  heavy 
tribute  to  Nineveh,  my  residence,  and  kissed  my  feet;  he 
pleaded  for  the  gift  of  his  gods.  I  showed  him  favor,  and 
repaired  the  broken  parts  of  those  gods;  the  power  of  Ashur, 
my  lord,  as  well  as  my  name,  I  inscribed  upon  them  and 
gave  them  back  to  him.  Tabua,  born  in  my  palace,  I  set 
over  them  in  dominion,  and  with  her  gods,  gave  her  back 
to  her  land.  I  added  65  camels  to  the  tax  of  my  fathers, 
and  put  them  upon  him.  After  that  Hazael's  fate  carried 
him  off  and  I  put  Ya'lu  his  son  upon  his  throne,  and  added 
to  his  father's  taxes  ten  mina  of  gold,  1000  precious  stones, 


54  CUNEIFORM    SOURCES 

50  camels,  1000  measures  of  spices,  and  put  them  upon 
him.^ 

Prism  B 

2  K.  21 

(Esarhaddon  is  not  mentioned  in  this  chapter  but 
in  2  K.  19 :  37,  Is.  37 :  38.     Cf .  Ezra  4:2). 

The  armory  which  the  former  kings,  my  fathers,  had 
built  for  camp  equipments  and  for  shields  for  the  horses, 
mules,  chariots,  weapons,  arms  of  battle,  the  spoil  of  ene- 
mies, everything  which  Ashur,  the  king  of  the  gods,  bestowed 
upon  me  as  my  royal  share;  to  care  for  the  horses,  and  to 
drive  in  the  chariots.  ...  I  made  the  inhabitants  of  the 
lands,  the  booty  of  my  bow,  carry  the  bag  and  basket,  and 
make  bricks.  That  small  building  I  tore  down  in  its  entirety. 
A  large  piece  of  land  I  took  from  the  field  as  a  building  place 
and  added  it.  With  pili-slouGs,  a  stone  of  the  mountains 
...  I  built  a  terrace.  I  demanded  of  the  kings  of  the  land 
of  the  Hittites,  and  of  those  beyond  the  sea,  of  Ba'al,  king 
of  Tyre,  Manasseh,  king  of  Judah,  Kaush-gabri,  king  of 
Edom,  Musuri,  king  of  Moab,  Sil-bel,  king  of  Gaza,  Mitinti, 
king  of  Ashkelon,  Ikausu,  king  of  Ekron,  Milkiashapa, 
king  of  Byblus,  Matanba'al,  king  of  Arvad,  Abiba*al,  king 
of  Samsimuruna,  Buduil,  king  of  Bit-Ammon,  Akhimilki, 
king  of  Ashdod,  twelve  kings  of  the  sea-coast,  Ekishtura, 
king  of  Idalion,  Pilagura,  king  of  Chytrus,  Kisu,  king  of 
Sillua,  Ituandar,  king  of  Paphos,  Eresu,  king  of  Sillu, 
Damasu,  king  of  Kuri,  Atmezu,  king  of  Tamesu,  Damusi, 
king  of  Qartihadasti,  Unasagusu,  king  of  Lidir,  Busutus, 
king  of  Nurenu,  ten  kings  of  Cyprus,  in  the  midst  of  the 
sea;  in  all  22  kings  of  the  land  of  the  Hittites,  of  the  sea- 
coast,  and  of  the  midst  of  the  sea,  I  demanded  great  beams 
of  them  all.  .  .  ? 

1  I  R.  45-47. 

«  IIIR.  15-16  (SeeR.  F.  Harper,  Hebraica,  HI,  177-185). 


THE     ASSYRIAN    PERIOD  55 

Campaign  against  Arabia  and  Egypt,  670  b.  c. 

In  my  tenth  campaign  [Ashur  gave  me  confidence,  and  I 
marched  my  troops  to  Magan  and  Melukhkha],  and  [turned] 
my  face  [to  the  land  of  ...  ]  which  in  the  tongue  of  the 
people  of  Kush  and  Egypt  is  called.  ...  I  called  out  the 
numerous  troops  of  Ashur,  which  are  in  the.  ...  In  the 
month  of  Nisan,  the  first  month,  I  left  my  city  of  Asshur. 
I  crossed  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates  at  high  flood,  and  climbed 
high  mountains  like  a  wild  ox.  In  the  course  of  my  campaign 
I  created  siege  works  against  Ba'al,  king  of  Tyre,  who  had 
trusted  in  Tarqu,  king  of  Kush,  his  friend,  and  had  shaken  off 
the  yoke  of  Ashur,  my  lord,  and  had  expressed  defiance  of 
me,  I  cut  off  from  him  food  and  drink,  the  means  of  life. 

From  Egypt  I  broke  camp  and  marched  to  Melukhkha, 
30  biru  of  land  from  the  city  of  Apku,  which  lies  in  the  ter- 
ritory of  the  land  of  Samena,  to  the  city  of  Raphia,  by  the 
side  of  the  brook  of  Egypt,  a  place  where  there  is  no  river, 
in  .  .  .  necessity  and  want,  I  made  my  troops  drink  well 
water  from  jugs. 

When  the  command  of  Ashur,  my  lord,  came  to  my  ears 
.  .  .  camels  of  the  kings  of  Aribi  [without  number  I  took 
from  them],  20  biru  of  land,  a  journey  of  15  days  ...  I 
marched.  Four  biru  of  land,  a  journey  of  two  days.  .  .  . 
Marduk,  the  great  lord,  came  to  my  help  ...  he  revived 
my  troops,  20  days,  seven  ...  in  the  territory  of  the  land 
of  Ma-gan  I  remained.^ 


Ashurbanipal,  668-625  b.  c. 

The  chief  claim  of  Ashurbanipal  (Old  Testament 
Asnapper,  Ezra  4: 10;  Greek  and  Latin  Sardanapalus) 
to  renown  is  the  fact  that  he  was  a  great  lover  of 

^  R.  W.  Rogers,  Two  Texts  of  Esarhaddon;  III  R.  35, 
No.  4. 


56  CUNEIFORM    SOURCES 

literature  and  founded  the  famous  library  from  whose 
stores  we  derive  a  large  percentage  of  our  knowledge  of 
Babylonian  and  Assyrian  literature,  art,  and  science. 
His  military  powers,  however,  must  not  be  overlooked, 
for  besides  bringing  about  the  surrender  of  Tyre, 
among  other  Western  towns,  he  brought  to  a  success- 
ful close  the  Egyptian  war  begun  by  his  father,  and 
remained  supreme  in  Egypt  till  660  b.  c. 

Troubles  at  home  engrossed  his  attention  for  many 
years  and  finally  in  647  he  became  king  of  Babylon. 
These  duties  naturally  gave  the  Egyptians  a  chance 
to  revolt  and  in  661-655  the  Nubian  rulers  returned 
to  Thebes,  and  the  Assyrians  were  forced  to  retire. 

ASHURBANIPAL  AT  AkKO,   C.   645   B.  C. 

On  my  return  I  captured  Ushu,  which  lies  on  the  coast 
of  the  sea.  The  inhabitants  of  Ushu,  who  were  disobedient 
to  their  governor  (and)  had  not  paid  their  tribute,  I  smote 
them  as  the  tribute  of  their  land.  Among  the  rebellious 
people  I  set  up  judgment.  Their  gods  and  their  people  as 
booty  I  carried  to  Assyria.  The  people  of  Akko  who  were 
rebellious  I  reduced,  their  bodies  I  hung  on  poles  around 
the  city;  the  remainder  I  brought  to  Assyria.  I  chose  them 
for  my  army,  and  added  them  to  the  numerous  troops,  which 
Ashur  had  presented  to  me.^ 

1  V  R.  1-10. 


THE    NEW    BABYLONIAN    AND 
PERSIAN  PERIODS 

Nebuchadrezzar,  604-562  b.  c. 

2  K.  24-25;  2  Chr.  36;  Jer.  20,  21,  25,  27,  28,  32,  34,  37-39;  Ez.  26,  29; 

Dan.  1-4 

Nebuchadrezzar  was  a  great  builder  and  architect, 
and  consequently  most  of  his  inscriptions  deal  with 
building  operations.  We  know,  however,  from  Bibli- 
cal sources  that  he  interfered  in  Judean  affairs,  and 
this  is  confirmed  by  some  of  his  inscriptions. 

Jehoiakim,  against  the  advice  of  Jeremiah,  revolted 
and  Jerusalem  was  besieged  in  597.  Jehoiakim  died 
in  the  meantime  and  Jehoiachin,  his  successor,  sur- 
rendered and  was  taken  with  many  other  captives  to 
Babylonia  and  settled  in  a  place  near  the  canal  Kebar 
near  Nippur.  About  a  decade  later  Hophra  (Apries) 
of  Egypt  induced  Judah  and  some  other  small  neigh- 
boring states  to  revolt.  This  called  down  the  wrath 
of  Nebuchadrezzar  who  laid  siege  to  Jerusalem  in  587, 
and  although  he  was  called  off  to  defeat  Hophra  suc- 
ceeded in  returning  and  capturing  the  city  in  586  b.  c. 
Zedekiah  was  taken  captive  to  Riblah,  where  his  eyes 
were  put  out,  and  Gedaliah  was  made  governor  of  the 
city. 

Nebuchadrezzar  then  subjected  Tyre  to  a  thirteen 
years'  siege  which  failed  in  573.  He  also  attempted 
an  invasion  of  Egypt  which  likewise  was  unsuccessful. 


58  CUNEIFORM    SOURCES 

A  Western  Campaign,    601  b.  c. 

.  .  .  paths  of  the  mountain  .  .  .  way  of  death.  Arms 
.  .  .  inhabitants  of  the  Hittite  country,  in  the  month  of 
Aim,  of  the  third  year  of  [Nebuchadrezzar  king  of]  Baby- 
lon opposed  his  troops.  [Nebuchadrezzar]  summoned  his 
troops,  in  thirteen  days  to  [the  Hittite  country]  he  marched. 
Of  the  people  inhabiting  Ammanu  (Anti-Lebanon)  .  .  . 
their  heads  he  beat  off  .  .  .  [upon  poles]  he  hung  ...  to 
...  he  brought.^ 

East  India  House  Inscription 

In  profound  confidence  in  him  (Marduk),  distant  lands, 
far  away  mountains,  from  the  upper  sea  to  the  lower  sea, 
steep  paths,  closed  roads,  where  the  step  is  confined,  [where] 
there  was  no  place  for  food,  difficult  roads,  thirsty  roads 
have  I  passed  through,  destroyed  the  rebellious,  captured 
enemies,  ruled  the  lands,  permitted  the  people  to  flourish, 
[but]  the  bad  and  evil  have  I  put  away  among  the  people.^ 

Wadi  Brissa  Inscription 

From  the  upper  sea  (Mediterranean)  to  the  lower  sea 
.  .  .  which  Marduk  the  lord  had  intrusted  to  me,  among 
all  the  lands,  the  totality  of  dwelling  places,  I  exalted  Baby- 
lon to  the  first  place.  Among  the  cities  ...  [I  caused] 
her  name  to  be  praised.  The  sanctuaries  of  Nabu  and  Mar- 
duk, my  lords,  .  .  .  continually  ...  at  that  time  .  .  . 
the  Lebanon,  the  cedar  mountains,  the  proud  forest  of  Mar- 
duk, the  scent  of  the  cedars  is  pleasant,  its  product.  The 
festival  of  another  god  ...  no  other  king.  .  .  .  My  god 
Marduk,  the  king  for  the  palace  of  princes  ...  of  heaven 
and    earth   was    suited    for    adornment.      As    an    enemy, 

^  Strassmaier,  Hehraica,  IX,  p.  5. 
2  I  j^,  53_58^  59_64. 


NEW    BABYLONIAN    AND    PERSIAN    PERIODS     59 

a  stranger,  had  taken  possession  of  (the  mountain),  and 
had  removed  its  products,  its  inhabitants  had  fled  and 
gone  far  away.  '  With  the  power  of  Nabu  and  Marduk,  my 
lords,  I  ordered  my  troops  to  march  to  the  Lebanon.  The 
enemy,  above  and  below,  I  drove  out,  and  made  the  heart 
of  the  land  to  rejoice,  its  scattered  people  I  gathered  and 
brought  them  back  to  their  place.  That  which  no  former 
king  had  accomplished  (I  did);  I  cleaved  the  high  moun- 
tains, lime-stone  I  broke  off  (and)  opened  trails.  I  cut  a 
road  for  the  cedars  and  before  Marduk,  my  king  (I  brought) 
massive,  tall,  strong  cedars,  of  wonderful  beauty,  whose 
dark  appearance  was  impressive,  the  mighty  products  of 
the  Lebanon.  .  .  . 

The  people  in  the  Lebanon  I  made  to  dwell  in  peace  and 
safety.  I  permitted  no  disturber  to  possess  [the  land]. 
That  none  may  produce  confusion  I  have  set  up  my  royal 
image  for  ever.^ 


Nebuchadrezzar's  Campaign,  against   Egypt,    567  b.  c. 

Gula  who  slays  my  foes  .  .  .  the  queen  who  endowed 
me  with  strength  of  heart  and  might  of  hand  and  consoles 
me,  who  causes  ...  of  my  reign  to  be  increased.  ...  In 
the  thirty-seventh  year  of  Nebuchadrezzar,  king  of  Baby- 
lon, [the  king  of  Egypt]  came  up  to  do  battle  and  Amasis,  king 
of  Egypt,  called  out  his  troops  .  .  .  numerous  troops  which 
were  in  Egypt  ...  to  his  aid  he  called  .  .  .  and  before 
him  to  make  [war]  he  trusted  ...  he  accomplished  their 
defeat  and  .  .  .  the  destruction.  .  .  ? 

The  account  of  Nebuchadrezzar's  mission  to  Egypt 
and  the  West,  as  given  by  Berossos,  ought  to  be  read 

1  Recudl  de  Travaux,  Vol.  28  (Langdon). 

2  TSBA  VII,  210-225;  Strassmaier,  Babylonische  Texte, 
VI,  No.  329. 


60  CUNEIFORM    SOURCES 

here.     See  Whiston's  translation  of  Josephus,  edited 
by  Shilleto,  London,  1890.     Vol.  V,  pp.  192-193. 


Successors  of  Nebuchadrezzar 

Nebuchadrezzar  was  succeeded  by  a  line  of  weak 
and  unimportant  kings,  among  them  being  Amel- 
Marduk  (the  Biblical  Evil-Merodach,  2  K.  25:  27  ff.), 
his  son,  who  liberated  Jehoiachin.  A  priestly  plot 
placed  Nabuna'id  (Nabonidus)  on  the  throne.  He 
was  neither  warrior  nor  statesman  but  an  antiquarian, 
and  as  such  has  proved  himself  a  great  servant  of 
Science.  Among  other  things  he  has  left  a  record 
which  seems  to  show,  unless  the  calculation  of  the 
scribes  be  wrong,  that  Naram-Sin  reigned  3,200  years 
before  his  time.  Meanwhile  his  son,  Bel-shar-usur 
(the  Biblical  Belshazzar,  Dan.  5),  was  caring  for 
the  government. 

There  were,  however,  great  events  happening  while 
the  scholar-king  was  carrying  on  his  investigations. 
Cyaxeres  the  Mede  had  extended  his  conquests  as 
far  as  Lydia  in  the  West.  In  550  Cyrus  of  Anshan 
captured  Ecbatana,  destroyed  the  Median  power,  and 
defeated  Croesus  in  546,  and  by  the  end  of  545  all  Asia 
Minor  was  under  Persian  rule.  In  538  b.  c.  Cyrus 
met  Bel-shar-usur  in  battle  and  defeated  him,  and  a 
few  days  later  Babylon  surrendered  without  resist- 
ance to  Gobryus,  one  of  the  generals  of  Cyrus. 

As  inscriptions  and  contract  tablets  show,  Cyrus 
was  immediately  succeeded  by  his  son  Cambyses, 
and  there  is  no  place  left  for  a  "Darius  the  Mede" 
as  ruler  of  Babylonia. 


NEW    BABYLONIAN    AND    PERSIAN    PERIODS     61 


An  Inscription  of  Nabuna'id 

Nabuna'id,  king  of  Babylon,  supporter  of  E-sagila,  and 
E-zida,  who  fears  the  great  gods,  am  I.  Here  follow  an 
account  of  his  buildings  and  also  a  prayer  to  Sin,  lord  of  the 
gods  in  which  he  says:  "As  for  Bel-shar-usur  (Belshazzar), 
the  first-born  son,  the  issue  of  my  body,  do  thou  implant 
in  his  heart  the  fear  of  thy  great  divinity.  Let  him  not 
turn  unto  sinning.  Let  him  be  satisfied  with  the  fulness  of 
fife."  1 

The  Cylinder  of  Cyrus 

2  Chr.  36:22/;  Ezra  1;   Is.  44-45;   Dan.  6:10 

This  inscription  relates  how  Marduk,  king  of  the 
gods,  and  god  of  Babylon  "sought  a  righteous  prince 
after  his  own  heart"  to  rule  over  Babylonia.  This 
prince  was  Cyrus,  king  of  Anshan,  whom  he  appointed 
to  "lordship  over  the  whole  world."  He  permitted 
him  to  enter  Babylon  "without  battle  and  conflict" 
and  thus  "spared  his  city  Babylon  a  calamity." 
Nabonidus,  the  king,  who  did  not  fear  him,  he  delivered 
into  his  hand.  Then  follows  a  description  of  the  might 
of  Cyrus.  He  continues:  "Marduk,  the  great  lord, 
rejoiced  in  my  pious  deeds,  and  graciously  blessed  me, 
Cyrus  the  king  who  worships  him,  and  Camhyses  my 
own  son,  and  all  my  troops.  .  .  .  All  the  kings  dwelling 
in  palaces,  of  all  the  quarters  'of  the  earth,  from  the 
Upper  to  the  lower  sea  ...  all  the  kings  of  the  West- 
land  dwelling  in  tents  brought  me  their  heavy  tribute, 
and  in  Babylon  kissed  my  feet.  .  .  .  And  the  gods 
of  Sumer  and  Akkad,  whom  Nabuna'id,  to  the  anger 
of  the  lord  of  the  gods,  had  brought  into  Babylon,  by 

1  I  R.  68,  No.  1. 


e%  CUNEIFORM    SOURCES 

command  of  Marduk,  the  great  lord,  I  caused  them 
peacefully  to  take  up  their  dwelling  in  habitations  that 
rejoiced  the  heart."  ^ 

Contract  Tablets 

Ezra  4,  6,  7;   Neh.  2 

Although  there  are  no  inscriptions  of  any  length  that 
give  us  a  full  picture  of  the  life  of  the  Jews  during  the 
Babylonian  exile,  yet  there  is  a  vast  number  of  con- 
tract tablets  which  throw  a  good  deal  of  light  upon  the 
life  and  work  of  the  Jewish  people  in  the  land  of  the 
Euphrates.  They  are  not,  however,  historically  im- 
portant enough  to  use  in  this  work. 

From  the  time  of  Nebuchadrezzar  to  the  end  of  the 
reign  of  Darius  I,  604-485,  we  have  nearly  4,000  con- 
tract tablets;  from  Artaxerxes  I,  464-424,  and  Darius 
II,  424-404,  there  are  numerous  tablets  which  contain 
Jewish  names.  These  contracts  show  us  that  Jews 
owned  land,  possessed  capital,  and  were  active  mem- 
bers of  the  communities  in  which  they  lived.  They 
also  retained  their  peculiar  religious  practices,  and 
especially  their  loyalty  to  Jehovah,  as  many  names 
show. 

1  V.  R.2  35. 


CHRONOLOGICAL  MATTER 

Babylonian  and  Assyrian  chronology,  which  has 
been  so  useful  in  determining  Biblical  chronology,  is 
established  by  scholars  on  the  basis  of  the  rich  Baby- 
Ionian  King  Lists  and  Chronicles;  Assyrian  Eponym 
Lists  and  Eponym  Chronicles;  and  the  Ptolemaic 
Canon.  These  I  give  here  that  the  student  may  be 
able  to  construct  Biblical  Chronology  for  himself. 


The  Babylonian  King  List  B^ 


Obverse 


Reverse 


YEARS 


15 


14 
18 
30 


Su-mu-a-bi 
Su-mu-la-ilu 

Za-bu-u,  son  of  the  former 
A-bil-sin,  son  of  the  former 
Sin-mu-bal-lit,  son  of  the  former 
Kha-am-mu-ra-bi,  son  of  the  former  55 
Sa-am-su-i-lu-na,  son  of  the  former  35 
E-bi-shum,  son  of  the  former  25 

Am-mi-di-ta-na,  son  of  the  former  25 
Am-mi-sa-dug-ga,  son  of  the  former  22 
Sa-am-su-di-ta-na,  son  of  the  former  31 


Uru-azag  (ki)  Bu-ma-ilu, 

king 
Ki-an-ni-bi 
Dam-ki-ih-shu 
Ish-ki-pal 
Shu-ush-shi 
Gul-ki-shar 
Kir-gal-dara-mash,  son  of 

the  former 
A-dara-kalam-ma,  son  of 

the  former 
A-kur-ul-an-na 
Me-lam-kur-kur-ra 
E-a-ga-mil 


11  kings,  Dynasty  of  Babylon 


10  kings,  Dynasty  of  Uru- 
azag  (ki) 


^  Pinches,  Proceedings  of  the  Society  of  Biblical  Archaeol- 
ogy, 1880,  p.  20  f. 


64 


CUNEIFORM    SOURCES 


The  Babylonian  King  List  A^ 
Column  I:  Column  II: 

11  names  broken  oflF,  to  be  sup-  About  13  names  broken  off 

plied  from  List  B 


...  11  kings,  dynasty  of  Babylon 

x» ; 

26  Nazi-maruttash                               \ 

60  Ilu-ma  (ilu) 

17  Ka-dash-man-tur-gu                       ! 

55  Ki-an  (-ni-bi) 

+  2  Ka-dash-man-Buriash                 ] 

36  Damki-ili  (-shu) 

. 

6  Ku-dur-En-Hl,  his  son                    ] 

15  Ish-ki  (-pal) 

13  Sha-ga-rak-ti-sur-ia-ash                  j 

27  Shu-ush-shi-akh 

8  Kash-til-iash,  his  son                      | 

55  Gul-ki  (-shar) 

1|  En-lil-nadin-shum 

50  Kir-gal  (-dara-mash) 

1|  Ka-dash-man-khar-be                   • 

28  Ai-dara-  (kalam-ma),  son 

of  the 

6  Adad-shum-iddin                            ) 

former 

! 

26  E-kur-ul  (-an-na) 

30  Adad-shum-nasir                            j 

7  Me-lam-ma  (-kur-kur-ra) 

15  Me-H-shi-khu                                  ; 

9  (ilu)  Ea-ga  (-mil) 

17  Marduk-aplu-iddin,  his  son          | 

368,  11   kings,   dynasty  of 

Uru- 

i 

1  Zamama-shum-iddin                       ; 

azag 

3  En-lil-nadin-akhi                             ! 

16  Kan-dash 

576  years,  9  months,  36  kings. 

22  A-gu-um-si,  his  son 

dy     .  .  .                                 ; 

22  Kash-til-ia-shi 
8  Ush-shi,  his  son 

17  Marduk  ... 

.  .  Abi-rat-tash 

6 j 

Tash-zi-guru-mash 

Column  IV 

Column  III                        ■ 

....  Nabu-shum-ishkun 

....  Nabu-nasir 

............                                                           H 

...  2  Nabu-nadin-zer,  his  s 

;on 
-ukin. 

j 

1  mo.  12  days.    Nabu-shum 

22 i 

his  son 


1  yr.  6  mos.    Marduk-shum 


^  Pinches,  Proceedings  of  the  Society  of  Biblical  Archaeol- 
ogy, 1884,  pp.  193  ff. 


CHRONOLOGIC 
Column  IV 


22  Dynasty  e. 


AL     MATTER 

Column  III 

13  Marduk-zer 
9  Nabu-shum-libur 


65 


3  Ukin-zer.    Dynasty  of  Shi-i 
2Pulu 

5  U-lu-la-ai.  Dynasty  Ti-nu 
12  Marduk-aplu-iddin,    Dy.    Sea- 
land 

5  Sharru-ukin 

2  Sin-akhi-erba.  Dy.  Kha-bi-gal 
1  mo.   Marduk-za-kir-shum,   son 

of  Arad 
9  mos.  Marduk-aplu-iddin,  Sab 
Khabi 

3  Bel-ibni.  Dy.  e. 

6  Ashur-nadin-shum.    Dy.    Kha- 

bi-gal 
1  Nergal-ushezib 

4  Mushezib-Marduk.  Dy.  e. 
8  Sin-akhi-erba 

.  .  .  Ashun-akhi-iddin 
.  .  .  Shamash-shum-ukin 
.  .  .  Kan-dal-anu 

[The  rest  is  broken  off] 


132,  2  mo.,  11  kings.    Dynasty 
Pashe 

18  Sim-mash-shikhu 
5  mos.    Ea-mu-kin-zer 
3  Kash  shu-u-nadin-akhi 

21,  5  mos.,  3  kings.  Dynasty  of 
Sea-land 

17  E-du-bar-shakin-shum 
3  Ninib-kudur-usur 
3  mos.     Shi-la-nim-shu-ka- 
muna 

20,  3  mos.,  3  kings.  Dy.  Bit- 
Bazi 

6 (ilu)?  .  .  . 

16 

8  mos.,  12  days 
[About  14  lines  broken  off] 


The  Babylonian  Chronicle^ 

Column  I 

In  the  third  year  of  Nabonassar,  king  of  Babylon,  Tig- 
lath-Pileser  took  his  seat  on  the  throne  in  Assyria.  In  the 
same  year  he  marched  against  Akkad  and  plundered  the 
cities  of  Rapilu  and  Khamranu.  The  gods  of  the  city  of 
Shapazza  he  carried  away. 

During  the  reign  of  Nabonassar,  Borsippa  separated  it- 

1  Pinches,  Proceedings  of  the  Society  of  Biblical  Archaeol- 
ogy, 1884,  pp.  193  ff. 


66  CUNEIFORM    SOURCES 

seK  from  Babylon.  The  battle  of  Nabonassar  against 
Borsippa  is  not  recorded. 

In  the  fifth  year  of  Nabonassar,  Ummanigash  took  his 
seat  on  the  throne  in  Elam. 

In  the  fourteenth  year  Nabonassar  became  ill  and  died 
in  his  palace.  Nabonassar  reigned  fourteen  years  in  Baby- 
lon. Nadimu,  his  son,  took  his  seat  on  the  throne  in 
Babylon. 

In  the  second  year  Nadinu  was  killed  in  a  revolt.  Nadinu 
reigned  two  years  in  Babylon.  Shumukin,  a  governor  of 
a  province,  a  rebel,  took  his  seat  on  the  throne.  Two  months, 
.  .  .  days  reigned  Shumukin  in  Babylon.  Ukinser  .  .  . 
the  throne  .  .  .  seized  the  throne. 

In  the  third  year  of  Ukinser,  Tiglath-Pileser  marched 
against  Akkad.  He  laid  Bit-Amukani  waste  and  took 
Ukinser  prisoner.  Ukinser  reigned  three  years  in  Babylon. 
Tiglath-Pileser  took  his  seat  on  the  throne  in  Babylon. 

In  the  second  year,  in  the  month  Tebet,  Tiglath-Pileser 
died.  Tiglath-Pileser  reigned  .  .  .  years  in  Akkad  and  in 
Assyria;  two  years  he  reigned  in  Akkad.  On  the  twenty- 
fifth  day  of  Tebet,  Shalmaneser  took  his  seat  on  the  throne 
in  Assyria,  and  the  city  of  Shabarain  was  destroyed. 

In  the  fifth  year,  in  the  month  Tebet,  Shalmaneser  died. 
Shalmaneser  reigned  five  years  in  Akkad  and  in  Assyria. 
On  the  twelfth  day  of  Tebet,  Sargon  took  his  seat  on  the 
throne  in  Assyria.  In  Nisan  Merodach-Baladan  took  his 
seat  on  the  throne  in  Babylon. 

In  the  second  year  of  Merodach-Baladan,  Ummanigash, 
king  of  Elam,  fought  a  battle  with  Sargon,  king  of  Assyria, 
in  the  district  of  Dur-ilu.  He  accomplished  the  defeat  of 
Assyria  and  slew  many.  Merodach-Baladan,  who  had 
come  to  the  help  of  the  king  of  Elam,  did  not  come  in  time 
for  the  battle,  but  marched  behind. 

In  the  fifth  year  of  Merodach-Baladan,  Ummanigash, 
king  of  Elam,  died.  Ummanigash  reigned  .  .  .  years  in 
Elam.     Ishtar-Khundu,  son  of  his  sister,  took  his  seat  on 


CHRONOLOGICAL     MATTER  67 

the  throne  in  Elam.  From  the  beginning  of  the  reign  of 
Merodach-Baladan  to  the  tenth  year  [Sargon]  was  at  enmity 
with  Merodach-Baladan. 

In  the  tenth  year  of  Merodach-Baladan  Bit-Dakuri  was 
laid  waste  and  its  goods  taken  away. 

Column  II 

In  the  twelfth  year  of  Merodach-Baladan  Sargon  marched 
against  Akkad,  and  gave  battle  to  Merodach-Baladan. 
Merodach-Baladan  fled  to  Elam,  at  the  head  of  his  nobles. 
Merodach-Baladan  reigned  twelve  years  in  Babylon.  Sar- 
gon took  his  seat  on  the  throne  in  Babylon. 

In  the  thirteenth  year  Sargon  took  the  hand  of  Bel  and 
captured  Dur-Yakin. 

In  the  fom-teenth  year  the  king  remained  in  the 
country. 

In  the  fifteenth  year,  on  the  twenty-second  day  of  Tesh- 
rit,  the  gods  of  the  Sea-Land  came  back  to  their  place. 
There  were  epidemics  in  Assyria. 

In  the  sixteenth  year  Sargon  marched  against  Tabal. 

[Here  nine  lines  are  wanting.] 

The  Babylonians  were  not  scattered.  The  territory 
.  .  .  he  .  .  .  Merodach-Baladan  ...  his  land  was  plun- 
dered. .  .  .  After  he  had  fortified  Larak  and  Sharraba  .  .  . 
he  placed  Bel-ibni  on  the  throne  in  Babylon. 

In  the  first  year  of  Bel-ibni,  Sennacherib  destroyed  the 
cities  of  IQiirimma  and  Khararatu. 

In  the  third  year  of  Bel-ibni,  Sennacherib  marched  against 
Akkad  and  plundered  Akkad.  Bel-ibni  and  his  nobles 
were  taken  away  to  Assyria.  Bel-ibni  reigned  three  years  in 
Babylon.  Sennacherib  set  Ashur-nadin-shum,  his  son,  on 
the  throne  in  Babylon. 

In  the  first  year  of  Ashur-nadin-shum  Ishtar-Khundu, 
king  of  Elam,  was  seized  by  his  brother  Khallushu  and  cast 
into    prison.     Ishtar-Khundu    reigned    eighteen    years    in 


68  CUNEIFORM    SOURCES 

Elam.  Khallushu,  his  brother,  took  his  seat  on  the  throne 
in  Elam. 

In  the  sixth  year  of  Ashur-nadin-shum,  Sennacherib 
marched  down  against  Elam,  destroyed  the  cities  of  Nagitu, 
Khilmu,  Pillatu,  Khupapanu  and  plundered  them.  After- 
ward Khullushu,  king  of  Elam,  marched  against  Akkad, 
and  at  the  end  of  Teshrit  entered  Sippar  and  put  the  inhab- 
itants to  death.  Shamash  did  not  leave  E-barra.  Ashur- 
nadin-shum  was  taken  prisoner  and  led  away  to  Elam. 
Ashur-nadin-shum  reigned  six  years  in  Babylon.  The 
king  of  Elam  set  Nergal-ushezib  on  the  throne  in  Babylon, 
and  accomplished  the  defeat  of  Assyria. 

In  the  first  year  of  Nergal-ushezib,  on  the  sixteenth  day 
of  Tammuz,  Nergal-ushezib  took  Nippur  ...  on  the  first 
day  of  Teshrit,  the  Assyrians  entered  Uruk. 

Column  III 

The  gods  of  Uruk  and  its  inhabitants  were  plundered. 
Nergal-ushezib  united  with  the  Elamites,  and  its  inhabi- 
tants were  taken  away.  On  the  seventh  day  of  Teshrit  he 
fought  against  the  Assyrians  in  the  district  of  Nippur;  he 
was  taken  prisoner  in  battle  and  carried  away  to  Assyria. 
Nergal-ushezib  reigned  one  year  and  six  months  in  Baby- 
lon. On  the  twenty-sixth  day  of  Teshrit  the  people  rebelled 
against  Kliallushu,  king  of  Elam,  imprisoned  him  and  killed 
him.  Khallushu  reigned  six  years  in  Elam.  Kudur  took 
his  seat  on  the  throne  in  Elam.  Afterwards  Sennacherib 
marched  down  against  Elam,  laid  it  waste  from  Rashi  to 
Bet-Burnaki  and  carried  away  booty.  Mushezib-Marduk 
took  his  seat  on  the  throne  in  Babylon. 

In  the  first  year  of  Mushezib-Marduk,  on  the  eighth  day 
of  Ab,  Kudur,  king  of  Elam,  was  taken  captive  in  a  revolt 
and  killed.  Kudur  reigned  ten  months  in  Elam.  Menanu 
took  his  seat  on  the  throne  in  Elam.  In  an  unknown  year 
he  collected  the  forces  of  Elam  and  the  Babylonians,  offered 


CHRONOLOGICAL     MATTER  69 

battle  to  the  Assyrians  in  Khalule  and  conquered  the 
Assyrians. 

In  the  fourth  year  of  Mushezib-Marduk,  on  the  fifteenth 
day  of  Nisan,  Menanu,  king  of  Elam,  suffered  with  a  stroke, 
his  mouth  was  closed  and  he  could  not  speak.  On  the 
first  day  of  Kishlev,  the  city  (Babylon)  was  captured,  Mush- 
ezib-Marduk was  taken  prisoner  and  carried  away  to 
Assyria.  Mushezib-Marduk  reigned  four  years  in  Babylon. 
On  the  seventh  day  of  Adar,  Menanu,  king  of  Elam,  died. 
Menanu  reigned  four  years  in  Elam.  Khummakhaldash 
took  his  seat  on  the  throne  in  Elam. 

In  the  eighth  year  (i.e.,  for  eight  years)  there  was  no 
king  in  Babylon.  On  the  third  day  of  Tammuz,  the  gods 
of  Uruk  returned  from  Eridu  to  Uruk.  On  the  twenty-third 
day  of  Teshrit,  Khummakhaldash,  king  of  Elam,  was 
smitten  with  fever,  and  died  in  the  attack  of  fever.  Khum- 
makhaldash reigned  eight  years  in  Elam.  Khummakhal- 
dash the  second  took  his  seat  on  the  throne  in  Elam.  On 
the  twentieth  day  of  Tebet,  Sennacherib,  king  of  Assyria, 
was  killed  by  his  son  in  a  revolt.  Sennacherib  reigned 
twenty-three  years  in  Assyria.  From  the  twentieth  day  of 
Tebet  until  the  second  day  of  Adar  the  revolt  continued  in 
Assyria.  On  the  eighteenth  day  of  Adar,  Esarhaddon, 
his  son,  took  his  seat  on  the  throne  in  Assyria. 

In  the  first  year  of  Esarhaddon,  Zeru-kinish-lishir  of  the 
Sea-Land,  after  he  .  .  .  against  Ur  .  .  .  city  and  .  .  .  fled 
before  the  nobles  of  Assyria  and  went  to  Elam.  In  Elam, 
the  king  of  Elam  took  him  prisoner  and  killed  him  with  a 
weapon.  In  an  unknown  month  in  Nippur,  the  guenna 
official.  .  . 

In  the  month  of  Elul  the  god  Ka-di  and  the  other  gods 
of  Dur-ilu  returned  to  Dur-ilu.  [The  chief  god  and  the 
other  gods  of  Dur-Sharrukin]  returned  to  Dur-Sharrukin. 
...  In  the  month  of  Adar  the  head  of .  .  .  .  In  the  second 
year  the  rab-hiti.  .  . 


70  CUNEIFORM    SOURCES 


Column  IV 

.  .  .  -akhe-shullim,  the  guenna  official,  and  .  .  .  were 
brought  to  Assyria  and  killed  in  Assyria. 

In  the  third  (fourth?)  year  Sidon  was  captured  and  its 
booty  carried  away  .  .  .  the  rab-biti  made  an  assembly 
(census?)  in  Akkad. 

In  the  fifth  year,  on  the  second  day  of  Teshrit,  the  Assyr- 
ian army  made  an  expedition  against  Bassa.  In  the  month 
of  Teshrit,  the  head  of  the  king  of  Sidon  was  cut  off  and 
brought  to  Assyria.  In  the  month  of  Adar,  the  heads  of 
the  kings  of  Kundu  and  Sisu  were  cut  off  and  brought  to 
Assyria. 

In  the  sixth  day,  the  king  of  Elam  entered  Sippar  and 
made  a  massacre.  Shamash  did  not  leave  E-barra.  The 
Assyrian  army  marched  against  Egypt.  .  .  .  Khummak- 
haldash,  king  of  Elam,  died  in  his  palace  without  being 
sick.  Five  years  ruled  Khummakhaldash  in  Elam.  Urtagu, 
his  brother,  took  his  seat  on  the  throne  in  Elam.  In  an 
unknown  month  Shum-iddin,  the  guennay  and  Kudur  of 
Bet-Dakuri  were  brought  to  Assyria. 

In  the  seventh  year,  on  the  fifth  day  of  Adar  the  Assyr- 
ian army  entered  Egypt.  In  the  month  of  Adar,  Ishtar 
of  Agade  and  the  other  gods  of  Agade  came  from  Elam  and 
on  the  tenth  day  of  Adar  entered  Agade. 

In  the  eighth  year  of  Esarhaddon,  on  the  .  .  .  day  of 
Tebet  the  land  of  Shupri  was  conquered  and  its  booty  car- 
ried away.  In  the  month  of  Kislev  its  booty  reached  Uruk. 
On  the  fifth  day  of  Adar  the  king's  wife  died. 

In  the  tenth  year,  in  the  month  of  Nisan,  the  army  of 
Assyria  marched  against  Egypt.  On  the  third,  sixteenth, 
and  eighteenth  days  of  Tammuz  —  three  times  —  a  battle 
was  fought  in  Egypt.  On  the  twenty-second  day  Memphis, 
its  royal  city,  was  captured,  its  king  escaped,  his  sons  and 
his  brother  were  taken  prisoners.    Its  booty  was  carried 


CHRONOLOGICAL    MATTER 


71 


away,  the  inhabitants  were  plundered,  its  goods  were 
despoiled. 

In  the  eleventh  year,  the  king  remained  in  Assyria.  He 
put  many  nobles  to  death  with  weapons. 

In  the  twelfth  year,  the  king  of  Assyria  marched  against 
Egypt  and  fell  ill  on  the  way  and  died  on  the  tenth  day 
of  Marcheshwan.  Esarhaddon  reigned  twelve  years  in 
Assyria.  Shamash-shum-ukin  in  Babylon  and  Ashurbanipal 
in  Assyria,  his  two  sons,  took  their  seats  on  the  throne. 

In  the  year  of  the  beginning  of  the  reign  of  Samash-shum- 
ukin,  in  the  month  of  lyyar,  Bel  and  the  gods  of  Akkad 
departed  from  Asshur,  and  on  the  twelfth  day  of  lyyar 
entered  Babylon.  In  the  same  year  the  king  of  Kirbitu 
was  captured.  On  the  twentieth  day  of  Tebet,  Bel-etir 
was  captured  [in]  Babylon  and  killed. 

First  part;  read  and  prepared  according  to  the  archetype. 
Tablet  of  Ana-Bel-eresh,  son  of  Liblutu,  son  of  Kalab- 
Nannari  for  Ea-iddin  the  son  of  Ana-Bel-eresh,  son  of 
Kalab-Nannari.  Babylon,  the  sixth  day  of  the  month 
...  in  the  twenty-second  year  of  Darius,  king  of  Babylon 
and  of  the  countries. 

The  Ptolemaic  Canon  ^ 


Length  of 
Reign 

Names  in  Greek 

Names  in  Babylonian 

B.C. 

14 
2 
5 
5 

112 
5 
2 
3 
6 
1 
4 

'Sa^opaa-crdpov 

Nadiov 

Xiv^pov  Kal  Tlibpov 

^IXovXalov  (var.  ^IXovXaLov) 

MapdoKefiirddov 

''ApKedvov 

d^aaCkeirov  irpdnov 

BrjXi^ov 

'' Airapapadlov 

T777e/3i^Xou  (var.  ^Upiye^dXov) 

M€<Tr]<TLIM)p5dK0V 

Nabu-nasir 

(Nabu)  -nadin-  (zir) 

Ukin-ziru.Plu 

Ululai 

Marduk-aplu-iddin 

Sharrukin 

(Sennacherib) 

Bel-ibni 

Ashur-nadin-shum 

Nergal-ushezib 

Mushezib-Marduk 

747 
733 
731 
726 
721 
709 
704 
702 
699 
693 
692 

A.  Deimel,  Veteris  Testameti  Chronologia,  Rome,  1912,  p.  25, 


72 


CUNEIFORM    SOURCES 


The  Ptolemaic  Canon 

—  Continued 

Len^h  of 
Reign 

Names  in  Greek 

Names  in  Babylonian 

B.C. 

8 

'A/SacriXcivTou  devr^pov 

688 

13 

''AaapMvov 

Ashur-akh-iddin 

680 

20 

'LaoffdovxI-vov  (var.  'Laoabovxivov) 

Shamash-shum-ukin 

667 

22 

'KLvCKavabdvov 

Kandalanu 

647 

21 

'Na^oTToXaffadpov 

Nabu-aplu-usur 

625 

43 

'Na^oKoXaa-adpov 

Nabu-Kuduri-usur 

604 

2 

^IXXoapov-ddfjLOV 

Amel-Marduk 

561 

4 

'NrjpiKacoXaao'dpov 

Nergal-shar-usur 

559 

17 

Na/SomS^ou 

Nabu-na'id 

555 

9 

Ki6pov 

538 

8 

KafiP^KTOV 

529 

36 

Aapeiov  irpdirov 

521 

21 

Z^p^ov 

485 

43 

'' Kpra^ip^ov  irpdrov 

464 

19 

Aapeiov  divripov 

423 

46 

^Apra^ip^ov  bevripov 

404 

21 

'fixov                 ,           ^. 

358 

2 

'A7t67ou  (var.  kpiayov) 

(Arses) 

337 

4 

Aapdov  rplrov 

335 

The  Assyrian  Eponym  List  ^ 


911-894  broken  off 
893  ..  .  Shar  .  .  . 
892Ninib-sar  .  .  . 
891  Tab-etir-[Ashur] 
890  Ashur-la-du? 


889  Tukulti-Ninib,  king 

888  Tak-lak-ana-bil-ia 

887  Abu-Malik 

886  Ilu-mil-ki 

885  la-ri-i 

884  Ashur-shezibani 

883  Ashur-nasir-apli,  king 
882  Ashur-iddin 
881  Imuttiaku 


880  Sha-(ilu)  Ma-dam-ka 

879  Da-gan-bel-nasir 

878  Ninib-pi-ia-usur 

877  Ninib-bel-usur 

876  Shangu-Ashur-lil-bur 

875  Shamash-upakhir 

874  Mergal-bel-kumua 

873  Kurdi-Ashur 

872  Ashur-li' 

871  Ashur-nat-kil 

870  Be-mudammik 

869  Dain-Ninib 

868  Ishtar  .  .  . 

867  Shamash-nuri 

866  Mannu-dam-ana-ili  (?) 

865  Shamash-bel-usur 


1  II  R  68-69;  III  R  I. 


CHRONOLOGICAL     MATTER 


73 


864  Ninib-Malik 

863  Ninib-etiranni 

862  Ashur-malik 

861  Nergal-is-ka-u-danni-in 

860  Tab-Bel 

859  Shar-kalab-nishe 

858  Shul-ma-nu-asharidu  (Shal- 

maneser),  king 
857  Ashur-bel-ukinni 
856  Ashur-bania-usur 
855  Abu-ina-ekal-lilbur 
854  Dain-Ashur 
853  Shamash-abua 
852  Shamash-bel-usur 
851  Bel-bania 
850  Khadil-ebushu 
849  Nergal-alik-pani 
848  Bur  (ilu)  Ra-man  (var.  Ra- 

ma-na) 
847  Ninib-mukir-nishe 
846  Ninib-nadin-shum 
845  Ashur-bania 
844  Tab-Ninib 
843  Tal-lak-ana-sharri 
842  Adad-rimani 
841  Bel-abua 
840  Shulmu-bel-lamur 
839  Ninib-kibsi-usur 
838  Ninib-malik 
837  Kurdi-Ashur 
836  Shepa-shar 
835  Nergal-mudamik 
834  Yakhalu 
833  Ululai 
832  Sharpati-Bel 
831  Nergal-malik 
830  Khu-ba-a[i] 
829  Ilu-mukin-akhi 

828  Shul-ma-nu-asharidu, 

king 
827  Dain-Ashur 


826  Ashur-bania-usur 
825  Yakhalu 
824  Bel-bania 


823  Shamshi-Adad,  king 
822  Yakhalu 
821  Bel-dan 
820  Ninib-ub-la 
819  Shamash-malik 
818  Nergal-mahk 
817  Ashur-bania-usur 
816  Sharpati-Bel 
815  Bel-balat 
814  Mu-shik-nish 
813  Ninib-asharidu 
812  Shamash-kumua 
811  Bel-kat-sabat 

810  Adad-nirari,  king 

809  Nergal-malik 

808  Bel-dan 

807  Sil-bel 

806  Ashur-taklak 

805  Ilu-ittia 

804  Nergal-eresh 

803  Ashur-kalab-nishe 

802  Ninib-malik 

801  Shepa-shar 

800  Marduk-[shem-ani] 

799  Mutakkil 

798  Bel-tarsi-(ilu)  ma 

797  Aishur-bel-usur 

796  Marduk-shadua 

795  Kin-abua 

794  Mannuki  (matu)  Ashur 

793  Mushalim-Ninib 

792  Bel-ikishani 

791  Shepa-Shamash 

790  Ninib-mukin-akhe 

789  Adad-mushammir 

788  Sil-Ishtar 

787  Balatu 


74 


CUNEIFORM    SOURCES 


786  Adad-uballit 
785  Marduk-shar-usur 
784  Nabu-shar-usur 
783  Ninib-nasir 
782  (ilu)  Ma-U' 

781  Shul-ma-nu-asharidu,  king 

780  Shamshi-ilu 

779  Marduk-rimani 

778  Bel-lishir 

777  Nabu-ishid-ukin 

776  Pan-Ashur-lamur   (var. 

amaru) 
775  Nergal-eresh 
774  Ishtar-duri 
773  Mannuki-Adad 
772  Ashur-bel-usur 

771  Ashur-dan,  king 

770  Shamshi-ilu 

769  Bel-malik 

768  ApKya 

767  Kurdi-Ashur 

766  MushaUim-Ninib 

765  Ninib-mukin-nishe 

764  Sidki-ilu 

763  Pur-(ilu)-sagale 

762  Tab-Bel 

761  Nabu-mukin-akhe 

760  Lakibu 

759  Pan-Ashur-lamur 

758  Bal-taklak 

757  Ninib-iddin 

756  Bel-shadua 

755Kisu 

754  Ninib-shezibani 

753  Ashur-nirari,  king 

752  Shamshi-ilu 

751  Marduk-shallimani 

750  Bel-dan 

749  Shamash-DU-DU-SUN 

748  Adad-bel-ukin 


747  Sin-shalHm-ani 
746  Nergal-nasir 


745  Nabu-bel-usur 
744  Bel-dan 


743  Tukulti-apil-esharra,  king 

742  Nabu-daninanni 

741  Bel-kharran-bel-usur 

740  Nabu-etiranni 

739  Sin-taklak 

738  Adad-bei-ukin 

737  Bel-Umuranni 

736  Ninib-mahk 

735  Ashur-shallimanni 

734  Bel-dan 

733  Ashur-daninanni 

732  Nabu-bel-usur 

731  Nergal-ubaUit 

730  Bel-ludari 

729  Napkhar-ilu 

728  Dur-Ashur 

727  Bel-kharran-bel-usur 

726  Marduk-bel-usur 

725  Makhde 

724  Ashur-shemi 

723  Shulman-asharidu,  king 

722  Ninib-malik 

721  Nabu-taris 

720  Ashur-is-ka-udannin 

719  Sharru-ukin  (Sargon), 
king  (in  Canon  III) 
718  Zer-bani 
717  Tab-shar-Ashur 
716  Tab-sil-esharra 
715  Tak-lak-ana-bel 
714  Ishtar-duri 
713  Ashur-bani 
712  Sharru-e-muranni 
711  Ninib-alik-pani 


CHRONOLOGI 

710  Shamash-bel-usur 

CAL     MATTER                   75 

685  Ashur-daninanni 

i 

709  Mannuki-Ashur-li' 

684  Mannu-zir-ni 

■i 

708  Shamash-upakhkhir 

683  Mannuki-Adad 

707  Sha-Ashur-du-(ub)  bu 

682  Nabu-shar-usur 

706  Mutakkil-Ashur 

681  Nabu-akh-ere-esh  (Esarhad- 

705  Upakhkhir  (ra)-Bel 

don  took  his  seat  on  the 

i 

(Canon  II  has  Sin-akhi- 

throne) 

,J 

erba,  king) 

680  Dana  (a)-nu 

<l 

704  Nabu-dini-ebush 

679  Ishtu-Adad-aninu 

703  Kan-nun-ai 

678  Nergal-shar-usur 

702  Nabu-li' 

677  Abu-rama 

701  Khananu 

676  Bam-ba 

700  Metunu 

675  Nabu-akhi-iddin 

i 

699  Bel-Sharanni 

674  Sharru-nuri 

i 

698  Shulmu-shar 

673  Atar-ilu 

697  Nabu-dur-usur 

672  Nabu-bel-usur 

':] 

696  Tab-bel 

671  Tebit-ai 

695  Ashur-bel-usur 

670  Shulmu-bel-lashme 

694  Ilu-ittia 

669  Shamash-Kashid-abi 

t 

693  Nadin-akhi 

668  Mar-larmi 

692  Za  (sa)-Za-(sa)-ai 

667  Gabbaru 

691  Bel-limuranni 

666  ..  .  ai 

] 

690  Nabu-nukin-akh 

(hnes  wanting) 

-1 

689  Gikhilu 

?  Bel-na'idi 

\ 

688  Nadin-akhi 

?  Tab-shar-Sin 
?  Arba-ila 
?  Girsa-puna 

687  Sin-akhi-erba  (Sennacherib) 

686  Bel-limura,nni 

?  Lishir-Ashur 

The  Assyrian  Eponym  Chronicle  with  Notes  ^ 

860  .....  when  Shul-ma-nu-asharidu  (Shalmaneser),  son 
of  Ashurnazirpal,  took  his  seat  on  the  throne. 

859  In    the    eponym    year    of    Sharru-kalab-nishe  .  .  . 

against  .  .  . 

858    "    "  "  "      "  Shul-ma-nu-asharidu,  king  of 

Assyria  .  .  . 

857    "    "         "  "      "  Ahur-bel-ukin,       the       com- 

mander-in-chief .  .  . 
1  II  R  52;   Delitzsch,  LesestiXckey  2  Aufl. 


76  CUNEIFORM    SOURCES 

856  In  the  eponym  year  of  Ashur-bana-usur,     the     chief 

BI-LUB  .  .  . 
855    "    "         "  "      "  Abu-ina-ekalli-lilbur,  the 

major-domo  .  .  . 
854    "     "         "  "      "  Dain-Ashur,  the  commander- 

in-chief  .  .  . 
853    "     "  "  "      "  Shamash-abua,     the     gover- 

nor of  the  city  of  Nasibina 
(Nisibis). 
852    "    "         "  "      "  Shamash-bel-usur  of  the  city 

of  Kal-kha  (Calakh)  .  .  . 
851    "     "  "  "      "  Bel-bana,  the  major-domo  .  .  . 

850    "    "         "  "      "  Khadil-ebushu    of    the    city 

of  .  .  . 
849    "    "         "  "      "  Nergal-aUk-makhri  .  .  . 

848    "     "         "  "      "  Bir(ilu)  Ramana  .  .  . 

[Break  in  Tablet] 

842 sil. 

841 of  the  city  of  Akhi-(naru)  sukhina. 

Against  .  .  . 

840 of  the  land  of  Rasappa. 

Against  the  land  of  .  .  . 

839 of  the  city  of  Akhi-  (nam)  sukhina. 

Against  the  land  of  Danabi. 

838 of  the  land    of    Sal-lat   (?).      Against  the 

land  of  Tabali 

837 of  the  land  of  Kirrm-i.     Against  the  land 

of  Melidi. 

836 of  the  city  of  Ninua   (Nineveh).     Against 

the  land  of  Namri. 

835 the  man  Itu  (?).     Against  the  land  of  Kue. 

834 of  the  city  of  Kak-zi.     Against  the  land  of 

Kue.     Against  the  land  of  Kue.     The 
great  god  went  out  from  Der. 

833 -na.    Against  the  land  of  Urartu  (Armenia) 

832 Against  the  land  of  Unki. 


CHRONOLOGICAL     MATTER  77 

831 Against  the  land  of  UUabi. 

830 Against  the  land  of  Manna. 

829 a  revolt 

828 a  revolt 

827 a  revolt 

826 a  revolt 

825 a  revolt. 

824 a  revolt. 

[Break  in  Tablet] 

817  In  the  eponym  year  of  Ashur-bania-usur  .  .  .  Against 

the  land  of  TiUie  (?) 

816    "     "  "  "      "  Sharpati-Bel   of   the   city   of 

Nasibina.  Against  the  land 
of  Zarati. 

815    "    "         "  "      "  Bel-balat  of  .  .  .  Against  the 

city  of  Der.  The  great 
god  went  to  Der. 

814    "    "         "  "      "  Mushiknish   of   the   land   of 

Kirruri.  Against  the  land 
of  Akhsana. 

813    "    "         "  "      "  Nergal-malik,    the    comman- 

der-in-chief. Against  the 
land  of  Kaldu. 

812    "    "         "  "      "  Shamash-Kumuaofthelandof 

Arbakha.  Against  Babylon. 

811    "     "         "  "      "  Bel-Kata-sabit  of  the  city  of 

Mazamua.     In  the  land. 

810    "     "         "  "      "  Adad-nirari,  king  of  Assyria. 

Against  Media. 

809  "    "         "  "      "  Nergal-malik,  the  commander- 

in-chief.  Against  the  city 
of  Guzana. 

808   "     "        "         "       "    Bel-dan,     the     major-domo. 

Against  the  land  of  Manna. 


78  CUNEIFORM    SOURCES 

807  In  the  eponym  year  of  Sil-Bel,      the      rab-BI-LUB. 

Against  the  land  of  Manna. 
806    "    "         "  "      "  Ashur-tak-lak,  the  man  Itu. 

Against  the  land  of  Arpad. 
805    "    "         "  "      "  Ilu-ittia,   a  governor   of   the 

coimtry.     Against  the  city 

of  Khazazu. 
804    "    "         "  "      "  Nergal-eresh  of  the  land  of 

Rasappa.     Against  the  city 

of  Balu. 
803    "    "         "  "      "  Ashur-Kalab-nishe     of      the 

land  of  Arbakha.    Against 

the  sea  coast.     A  plague. 
802    "     "         "  "      "  Ninib-malik   of   the   city   of 

Akhi       (nam)       Zukhina. 

Against  the  city  of  Khu- 

bushkia. 
801    "    "         "  "      "  Shepa-Ishtar  of  the  city  of 

Nasibina.     Against  Media. 
800    "     "         "  "    "    Marduk-Shemani  of  the  city 

of  Amedi.    Against  Media. 
799    "    "         "  "      "  Mutakkil-Marduk,   the   man 

of  the  Rabshakehs.  Against 

the  land  of  Lusia. 
798    "    "  "  "      "  Bel-tarsi-iluma  of  the  city  of 

Kalkhi.     Against  the  land 

of  Namri. 
797    "     "         "  '*     "  Asshur-bel-usur  of  the  land 

of    Kirruri.      Against    the 

city  of  Mansuate. 
796    "     "         "  "     "  Marduk-Shadua  of  the  city 

of  Shallat.   Against  the  city 

of  Der. 
795    "    "         "  "      "  Ukin-abua    of    the    land    of 

Tushkhan.     Against       the 

city  of  Der. 


CHRONOLOGICAL     MATTER  79 

794  In  the  eponym  year  of  Manuki-Ashur  of  the  city  of 

Guzana.     Against  Media. 
793    "    "         "  "      "  Mushallim-Ninib  of  the  land 

of  TilHe.      Against  Media. 
792    "    "         "  "      "  Bel-ikishani    of    the    city    of 

Mekhinish.      Against    the 

city  of  Khubushkia. 
791    "    "         "  "      "  Shepa-Shamash   of  the  land 

of  Isana.     Agaiast  the  land 

of  Itua. 
790    "    "         "  "      "  Ninib-ukin-akhi   of   the   city 

of  Ninua.     Against  Media. 
789    "    "         "  "      "  Adad-mushammir      of      the 

city     of     Kakzi.     Against 

Media. 
The  foundation  of  the  temple 

of  Nabu  in  Nineveh  was 

laid. 
788    "    "         "  "      "  Sil-Ishtar    of    the    city  .  .  . 

Against  the  land  of  Kiski. 

Nabu     entered     the     new 

temple. 
787    "    "         "  "      "  Nabu-shar-usur  (var.  Balatu) 

of  the  city  of  .  .  . 
786    "    "         "  "      "  Adad-ubaUit  of  the  city  of 

Rimusi.    Against  .  .  . 
The   great   god   returned   to 

the  city  of  Der. 
[The  year  785  with  Marduk- 

shar-usur  is  omitted] 
784    "    "         "  "      "  Nabu-shar-usur  of  the  city  of 

Kur-ban.    Against  the  land 

of  Khubushkia. 
783    "    "         "  "      "  Ninib-nasir    of    the    city    of 

of  Mazamua.    Against  the 

land  of  Itu. 


80  CUNEIFORM    SOURCES 

782  In  the  eponym  year  of  Mali'  of  the  city  of  Nasibina. 

Against  the  land  of  Itu 

781    *'     ''  "  "      "  Shul-ma-nu-asharidu      (Shal- 

maneser),  king  of  Assyria. 
Against  the  land  of  Urartu 
(Armenia). 

780    "    "         "  "      "  Shamshi-ilu,  the  commander- 

in-chief.  Against  the  land 
of  Urartu. 

779    "    "         "  "      "  Marduk-rimani,   the  rab-BI- 

LUB.  Against  the  land  of 
Urartu. 

778    "    "         "  "      "  Bel-lishir,    the    major-domo. 

Against  the  land  of  Urartu. 

777    "    "         "  "      "  Nabu-ishid-ukin,  the  minister. 

Against  the  land  of  Itu. 

776    "    "         "  "      "  Pan-Ashur-lamur,    the    gov- 

ernor of  the  land.  Against 
the  land  of  Urartu. 

775    "    "         "  "      "  Nergal-eresh  of  the  land  of 

Rasappa.  Against  the 
land  of  cedars  (Amanus). 

774    "    "         "  "      "  Ishtar-duri    of    the    city    of 

Nasibina.  Against  the 
land  of  Urartu,  and  the 
land  of  Namri. 

773    "    "         "  "      "  Mannuki-Adad  of  the  land  of 

Shallat.  Against  the  city 
of  Damascus. 

772    "     "         "  "      "  Ashur-bel-usur    of    the    city 

of  Kalkhi.  Against  the 
land  of  Khatarika. 

771    "    "         "  "      "  Ashur-dan,  king  of  Assyria. 

Against  the  city  of  Gananati. 


CHRONOLOGICAL     MATTER  81 

770  In  the  eponym  year  of  Shamshi-ilu,  the  commander- 
in-chief.  Against  the  city 
of  Shurad. 

769    "    "         "  "      "  Bel-malik  of  the  city  of  Ar- 

bakha.  Against  the  land 
of  Itu. 

768    "    "         "  "      "  ApHya  of  the  city  of  Maz- 

amua.     In  the  comitry. 

767    "     "         "  "      "  Km-di-ashur   of   the   city   of 

Akhi-(naru)  Zukhina. 

Against  the  land  of  Gan- 
anati. 

766    "     "         "  "      "  Mushallim-Ninib  of  the  city 

of  Tile.    Against  Media. 

765    "    "         "  "      "  Ninib-mukin-nisheoftheland 

of  Kirruri.  Against  the  land 
of  Khatarika.     A  plague. 

764    "    "         "  "      "  Sidki-ilu  of  the  land  of  Tush- 

khan.     In  the  country. 

763    "     "         "  "      "  Bur-(ilu)sagale  of  the  city  of 

Guzana.  A  revolt  in  the 
city  of  Ashur.  In  the 
month  of  Sivan  an  ecUpse 
of  the  sun  took  place. 

762    "    "         "  "      "  Tab-bel  of  the  city  of  Amedi. 

A  revolt  in  the  city  of  Ashur. 

761    "    "         "  "      "  Ninib-mukin-akhe  of  the  city 

of  Ninua.  A  revolt  in  the 
city  of  Arbakha. 

760    "    "         "  "      "  Laqibu  of  the  city  of  Kak-zi. 

A  revolt  in  the  city  of 
Arbakha. 

759    "    "         "  "      "  Pan-Ashur-lamur      of       the 

city  of  Arba-ilu  (Arbela). 
A  revolt  in  the  city  of  Guz- 
ana.    A  plague. 


I 


82  CUNEIFORM    SOURCES 

758  In  the  eponym  year  of  Bel-taklak     of     the    city    of 

Isana.     Against  the  city  of 

Guzana.   Peace  in  the  land. 
757    "    "         "  "      "  Ninib-iddin    of    the    city    of 

Kur-(mat)ban.      In       the 

country 
756    "     "         "  "     "  of  Bel-shadua  of  the  city  of 

Parnunna.  In  the  country. 
755    "    "         "  "      "  Kisu  of  the  city  of  Mekhin- 

ish.    Against  the  land  (var. 

city)  of  Khatarika. 
754    "    "         "  "      "  Ninib-shezibani   of   the   city 

of  Rimusi.      Against    the 

land  (var.  city)  of  Arpadda. 

Return   from   the   city   of 

Ashur. 

753    "    "         "  "      "  Ashur-nirari,  king  of  Assyria. 

In  the  country. 

752    "    "         "  "      "  Shamshi-ilu,  the  commander- 

in-chief.    In    the    country. 

751   "     "         "  "      "  Marduk-shallimani,   the   ma- 

jor-domo.    In  the  country. 

750    "    "         "  "     "  Bel-dan,     the    rab-BI-LUB. 

In  the  country. 

749    "    "         "  "     "  Shamash-ittalak-SUN,       the 

minister.  Against  the  land 
of  Namri. 

748    "    "         "  "      "  Adad-bel-ukin,    governor    of 

the  land.  Against  the  land 
of  Namri. 

747    "    "         "  "      "  Sin-shaUimani  of  the  land  of 

Rasappa.    In  the  country. 

746    "    "         "  "      "  Nergal-nasir   of   the   city   of 

Nasibina.  A  revolt  in  the 
city  of  Kalkhi  (Calakh). 


CHRONOLOGICAL     MATTER  83 

745  In  the  eponym  year  of  Nabu-bel-usur  of  the  city  of 

Arbakha.  On  the  thir- 
teenth day  of  the  month 
of  lyyar,  Tukulti-apil- 
esharra  (Tiglath-Pileser) 
took  his  seat  on  the  throne. 
In  the  month  of  Tishrit  he 
marched  to  the  territory 
between  the  rivers. 

744    "    "         "  **     "  Bel-dan  of  the  city  of  Kal- 

Khi.  Against  the  land  of 
Namri 

743    "    "         "  "      "  Tukulti-apil-esharra,  king  of 

Assyria.  In  the  city  of 
Arpadda.  A  massacre  took 
place  in  the  land  of  Urartu 
(Armenia). 

742    "    "         "  "      "  Nabu-daninani,      the      com- 

mander-in-chief. Against 
the  city  of  Arpadda. 

741    "    "         "  "      "  Bel-Kharran-bel-usur,        the 

major-domo.  Against  the 
city  of  (Arpadda).  After 
three  years  it  was  con- 
quered. 

740    "    "         "  "      "  Nabu-etiranni,    the    rab-BI- 

LUB.  Against  the  city  of 
Arpadda. 

739    "    "         "  "      "  Sin-tak-lak,      the      minister. 

Against  the  land  of  Ul- 
luba.  A  fortress  estab- 
lished. 

738    "     "         "  "      "  Adad-bel-ukin,  the  governor 

of  the  land.  The  city  of 
Gullani  captured. 


84  CUNEIFORM    SOURCES 

737  In  the  eponym  year  of  Bel-limuranni  of  the  land  of 

Rasappa.     Against  Media. 

736    "     "         "  "      "  Ninib-malik  of  Nasibina.    To 

the  foot  of  the  Nal  moun- 
tains. 

735    "    "         "  "      "  Ashur-Shallimani  of  the  land 

of  Arbakha.  Against  the 
land  of  Urartu. 

734    "    "         "  "      "  Bel-dan  of  the  city  of  Kal- 

Kha.  Against  the  land  of 
Pilista. 

733    "    "         "  **      "  Ashur-daninani  of  the  city  of 

Mazamua.  Against  the 
land  of  Damascus. 

732    "    "         "  "      "  Nabu-bel-usur  of  the  city  of 

Sime.  Against  the  land  of 
Damascus. 

731    "    "         "  "      "  Nergal-ubaUit    of    the    city 

of  Akhi-(naru)  Zukhina. 
Against  the  city  of  Shapiya. 

730    "    "         "  "      "  Bel-ludari  of  the  city  of  Tile. 

In  the  country. 

729    "    "         "  "      "  Napkhar-ilu  of  the  land  of 

Kirruri.  The  king  took 
the  hands  of  Bel. 

728    "    "         "  "      "  Dur-Ashur    of    the    city    of 

Tushkhan.  The  king  took 
the  hands  of  Bel.  The 
city  .  .  . 

727    "    "         "  "      "  Bel-kharran-bel-usur    of    the 

city  of  Guzanu.  Against 
the  city  of  .  .  .  Shul-ma- 
nu-asharidu  (Shalmaneser) 
took  his  seat  on  the 
throne. 


CHRONOLOGICAL    MATTER  85 

726  In  the  eponym  year  of  Marduk-bel-usur  of  the  city 

of  Amedi.    In  the  country. 
725    "    "         "  "      "  Makhdie  of  the  city  of  Ninua 

(Nineveh).     Against  .  .  . 
724    "    "         "  "      "  Ashur-Khal    of    the    city    of 

Kak-zi.     Against  .  .  . 
723    "    "         "  "      "  Shul-ma-nu-asharidu,       king 

of  Assyria.     Against  .  .  . 


The  Eponym  Chronicle  for  720-705  b.  c. 

720     

719     entered. 

718 against  the  land  of  Tabal. 

717 was     set     up. 

716 Iranzu  of  Man. 

715 governors  were  estabhshed. 

714 the  city  of  Musasir  of  the  god  Khaldia. 

713 the  nobles  in  the  land  of  EUip. 

712        entered. 

711 the  city  of  Musasir. 

710 in  the  country  .  .  .  Against  the 

....  city  of  Markasa. 

709  .  .  .  Against  the  city  of  Bit-zer-naid.  The  king  was 
taken  prisoner  at  Ejsh.  .  .  .  Sharni-ukim  (Sargon)  took  the 
hands  of  Bel. 

708  .  .  .  the  city  of  Kummukh  captured.  A  governor 
appointed. 

707  The  eponym  year  of  Sha-Ashur-duppu,  governor  of 
the  city  of  Tushkhan.     The  king  returned  from  Babylon. 
.  .  .  from  the  city  of  Dur-Yakin  brought  out. 

706  (?)  .  .  .  the  city  of  Dur-Yakin  destroyed  .  .  .  the 
gods  of  Dur-Yakin  entered  their  temples. 

705  (.f^)  ...  in  the  land  of  Karalla. 


86 


CUNEIFORM    SOURCES 


Fragment  of  a  Similar  List 

708  Eponym  year  of  Shamash-upakhkhir  .  .  . 
.  .  .  the  nobles.     Against  Kummukh. 

707  Eponym  year  of  Sha-Ashur-dubbu,  governor  of  the 
city  of  Tushkhan.  The  king  returned  from  Babylon.  The 
palaces  and  .  .  .  On  the  twenty-second  day  of  the  month 
of  Teshrit  the  gods  of  Dur-Sharru-ukin  entered  into  their 
temple. 

706  Eponym  year  of  Mutakkil-Ashur,  governor  of  the  city 
of  Guzana  (Gozan).     The  king. 

705  Eponym  year  of  Upakhkhir,  governor  of  Amedi  .  .  . 
Because  of  the  oracle,  the  Kulummaites  .  .  .  Guerillas  the 
camp  of  the  King  of  Assyria  .  .  .  On  the  twelfth  day  of  the 
month  of  Ab,  Sin-akhe-erba  (Sennacherib)  took  his  seat  on 
the  throne. 

704  Eponym  year  of  Nabu-dini-ebush,  the  governor  of 
the  city  of  Ninua  (Nineveh).  .  .  .  The  city  of  Larak,  the 
city  of  Sarabunu  .  .  .  the  palace  of  the  city  of  Kakzi  was 
built.     Great  because  of  .  .  . 

Babylonian  and  Assyrian  Months 


Babylonian 

Assyrian 

I  Ni-sa-an-nu 

Nisan 

c.2lMarch  — 21  April 

n  A-a-ru 

Airu 

"  "  April    —  "  May 

III  Si-ma-nu 

Sivan 

"  "  May     —  "  June 

IV  Du-'u-zu 

Tammuz 

*'   "  June    —  "  July 

V  A-bu 

Ab 

"  "  July     -  "  Aug. 

VI  U-lu-lu 

Elul 

"  "  Aug.     —  "  Sept. 

Vn  Tish-ri-tu(m) 

Tishri 

"  "  Sept.    —  "  Oct. 

VI 1 1  A-ra-akh-sa-am-na 

Markheshwan"  "  Oct.     —  "  Nov. 

IX  Ki-si-li-mu 

Kislev 

"  "  Nov.    —  "  Dec. 

X  Te-bi-tum 

Tebet 

"  "  Dec.     —  "  Jan. 

XI  Sha-ba-tu 

Shabat 

"  "  Jan.      —  "  Feb. 

Xn  Ad-da-ru 

Adar 

"  "  Feb.     —  "  March 

EGYPTIAN  SOURCES 


TEE ''ISRAEL  STELA'' 

The  so-called  ''Israel  Stela  **was  discovered  by  Flinders  Petrie 
at  Thebes  in  1896.  The  stela  contains  a  hymn  of  victory  cele- 
brating the  defeat  of  the  Libyans  by  Merneptah^  the  "Pharaoh 
of  the  Exodus.'*  It  has  been  called  the  "Israel  Stela'*  because 
it  contains  in  the  middle  of  the  second  line  from  the  bottom  the 
name  of  "Israel^"  being  the  earliest  mention  of  that  name  in 
any  literature.  The  stela  is  in  the  Cairo  Museum.  See  page 
133  for  a  translation  of  the  part  containing  the  name  "Israel." 


?;j-M 


BI^K^OT0oiirM^ilzlliiiSSi!2S 


i 


9Ta  r:^  w;  V  [ge^j\;iHiVYf  ."i  ^6mw:Tt  ^ilU? 


THE     "ISRAEL         STELA 


THE  OLD  KINGDOM,  2980-2475  b.  c. 

THIRD  TO  SIXTH  DYNASTY 

At  what  period  Egypt  first  came  into  contact  with 
Syria  and  Palestine  no  one  presumes  to  know.  Already 
in  the  reign  of  Snefru,  c.  2980-2900  b.  c,  of  the  third 
dynasty,  as  we  learn  from  an  inscription  on  the  famous 
Palermo  Stone,^  the  Egyptians  had  sent  a  fleet  of  forty 
ships  to  Lebanon  which  returned  "filled  with  cedar 
wood,"  and  it  is  legitimate  to  conclude  that  this  was 
not  their  first  trip. 

As  contemporaries  of  Lugal-zag-gi-si,  Sargon  I, 
and  Naram-Sin  there  ruled  in  Egypt  the  pyramid 
builders  of  the  fourth,  fifth,  and  sixth  dynasties, 
c.  2900-2475  b.  c.  According  to  inscriptions  cut  into 
the  rocks  of  the  Wadi  Maghara  ^  in  the  Peninsula  of 
Sinai,  Sahure,  c.  2743-2731  b.  c,  second  king  of  the 
fifth  dynasty,  was  referred  to  as  "smiter  of  all  coun- 
tries" and  it  is  added  that  "the  great  god  smites  the 
Asiatics  of  all  countries"  During  recent  excavations 
at  Abusir,  a  relief  was  found  which  represents  a  king 
of  the  fifth  dynasty  as  a  lion-headed  sphinx  trampling 
upon  foreigners,  and  it  is  quite  evident  that  some  of 
them  were  Semitic  Asiatics,  as  their  physiognomy 
shows.  Another  picture  shows  Sahure's  fleet  just 
returned  from  an  expedition  to  the  neighborhood  of 

1  Naville,  La  Pierre  de  Palerme,  Recueil  de  Travaux,  25, 
pp.  64-81. 
2  Lepsius,  Denkmdler,  Bd.  Ill,  Abt.  II,  39,  a. 


90  EGYPTIAN    SOURCES 

Lebanon.     In   the   ships   Semitic   prisoners   are   seen 
near  the  Egyptians. 

In  the  reign  of  Pepi  I,  c.  2590-2570  b.  c,  third  king 
of  the  sixth  dynasty,  according  to  an  inscription  of 
Uni/  the  great  commander-in-chief  of  Pepi's  armies, 
an  expedition  was  made  into  southern  Palestine. 
Uni  says:  "His  majesty  made  war  on  the  Asiatic 
sand-dwellers,  and  his  majesty  made  an  army  of  many 
ten  thousands.  [Here  follows  an  account  of  where 
the  soldiers  were  recruited,  and  some  personal  remarks 
are  added].  This  army  returned  in  safety  (after)  it 
had  harrowed  the  land  of  the  sand-dwellers;  this 
army  returned  in  safety  (after)  it  had  destroyed  the 
land  of  the  sand-dwellers;  this  army  returned  in  safety 
(after)  it  had  overturned  its  strongholds;  this  army 
returned  in  safety  (after)  it  had  destroyed  its  figs  and 
its  vines;  this  army  returned  in  safety  (after)  it  had 
thrown  fire  in  all  its  [troops];  this  army  returned  in 
safety  (after)  it  had  slain  troops  therein  in  many 
thousands;  this  army  returned  in  safety  (after)  [it 
had  carried  away]  therefrom  a  great  multitude  as 
living  captives.  His  majesty  praised  me  on  account 
of  it  above  everything." 

His  majesty  sent  me  to  despatch  [this  army]  five  times, 
in  order  to  traverse  the  land  of  the  sand-dwellers  at  each  of 
their  rebellions,  with  these  troops.  I  did  so  that  [his]  majesty 
praised  me  [on  account  of  it]. 

When  it  was  said  that  there  were  revolters  because  of  a 
matter  among  these  barbarians  in  the  land  of  gazelle-nose, 
I  crossed  over  in  troop  ships,  and  I  voyaged  to  the  back  of 
the  height  of  the  ridge,  (i.e.,  the  highlands  of  Palestine)  to 

1  Sethe,  Urkunden,  I,  98-110. 


THE    OLD    KINGDOM,    2980-2475    B.C.         91 

the  north  of  the  sand-dwellers.  When  this  army  had  been 
brought  to  the  highway,  I  came  and  smote  them  all  and  every 
revolter  among  them  was  slain. 

Pepi  II,  c.  2566-2476,  fifth  king  of  the  same  dynasty, 
likewise  sent  an  expedition  to  the  land  of  the  Asiatics. 
An  account  of  the  expedition  is  given  by  Pepi-Nakht 
a  nobleman  of  Elephantine.  He  says:  "Now  the 
majesty  of  my  lord  sent  me  to  the  country  of  the 
Asiatics  to  bring  for  him  the  sole  companion  [com- 
mander] of  the  sailors,  the  caravan-conductor,  Enenk- 
het,  who  was  building  a  ship  there  for  Punt,  when  the 
Asiatics  belonging  to  the  sand-dwellers  slew  him, 
together  with  a  troop  of  the  army  which  was  with  him. 
...  I  slew  people  among  them  [I]  and  the  troop  of 
the  army  which  was  with  me."  ^ 

1  Sethe,  op.  cit,  I,  131-135. 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM,  2160-1788,  b.  c. 

ELEVENTH  TO  TWELFTH  DYNASTY 

In  the  reign  of  Sesostris  I,  e.  1980-1935,  a  noble  of 
high  rank  named  Sinuhe  fled  to  Palestine  where  he 
remained  an  exile  till  near  the  end  of  his  life.  The 
remarkable  and  interesting  account  of  his  adventures 
is  considered  by  all  scholars  to  be  exceedingly  reliable 
and  is,  therefore,  very  useful  for  us,  for  in  it  we  have 
the  oldest  account  of  what  was  later  the  land  of 
Palestine. 

The  Tale  of  Sinuhe^ 

I  stole  away  .  .  .  , 
To  seek  for  myself  a  place  of  concealment. 
I  placed  myself  between  two  bushes, 
To  avoid  the  way  which  they  went. 
I  proceeded  up  stream, 
Not  intending  to  reach  the  court; 
I  thought  there  was  fighting  (there). 

I  reached  ...  in  the  region  of  Sycomore, 
I  arrived  at  the  island  of  Snefru. 
I  tarried  in  a  stretch  of  field, 
It  grew  light,  I  went  on,  when  it  was  day. 
I  came  upon  a  man,  standing  in  .  .  .  the  way; 
He  saluted  me,  and  was  afraid. 
When  the  time  of  the  evening  meal  drew  on, 

^  Translated  by  Erman,  Aus  den  Papyrus  des  Koniglichen 
Museums  zu  Berlin,  14-29;  and  Breasted,  Ancient  Records, 
I,  pp.  233  ff.     I  give  only  part  of  the  tale. 


THE   MIDDLE    KINGDOM,    2160-1788    B.C.     93 

I  reached  the  city  of  NgV. 

I  ferrried  over,  in  a  vessel  without  a  rudder, 

[By  means  of]  a  wind  of  the  west. 

I  passed  by  on  the  east  of  the  quarry, 

Past  the  highland  goddess,  mistress  of  the  Red  Mountain  ^ 

As  I  gave  the  way  to  my  feet  [going  northward], 

I  came  to  the  walls  of  the  ruler. 

Made  to  repulse  the  Bedwin, 

[And  to  smite  the  sand-rangers], 

I  bowed  down  in  the  bushes. 

For  fear  the  sentinels  on  the  fort, 

Who  belonged  to  its  day  (-watch),  should  see  me. 

I  went  on  at  time  of  evening. 

As  the  earth  brightened,  I  arrived  at  Peten. 

When  I  had  reached  the  lake  of  Kemwer  (north  end  of  Suez 

Gulf), 
I  fell  down  for  thirst,  fast  came  [my]  breath, 
My  throat  was  hot, 
I  said:  This  is  the  taste  of  death. 
I  upheld  my  heart,  I  drew  my  limbs  together. 
As  I  heard  the  sound  of  the  lowing  of  cattle, 
I  beheld  the  Bedwin. 
That  chief  among  them,  who  had  been  in  Egypt,  recognized 

me. 
He  gave  me  water,  he  cooked  milk  for  me. 
I  went  with  him  to  his  tribe. 
Good  was  that  which  they  did  (for  me). 
One  land  sent  me  on  to  another, 
I  set  loose  for  Suan, 

I  arrived  at  Kedem  (Hebrew  =  "eastward,"  east  of  Jordan); 
I  spent  a  year  and  a  half  there. 

Emuienshi,  that  sheik  of  Upper  Tenu,^  brought  me 
forth, 

1  Still  called  the  Red  Mountain,  northeast  of  Cairo. 

2  Tenu  =  Retenu  =  Syria. 


94  EGYPTIAN    SOURCES 

Saying  to  me:  "Happy  art  thou  with  me, 
(For)  thou  hearest  the  speech  of  Egypt." 
He  said  this  for  he  knew  my  character, 
He  had  heard  of  my  wisdom; 

The   Egyptians  who  were   there   with   him,   bore   witness 
of  me. 


He  (Emuienshi)  put  me  at  the  head  of  his  children. 
He  married  me  to  his  eldest  daughter. 

He  made  me  select  for  myseK  of  his  land,  < 
Of  the  choicest  of  that  which  he  had. 
On  his  boundary  with  another  land. 
It  was  a  goodly  land,  named  Yaa; 

There  were  in  it  figs  and  vines,  \ 

More  plentiful  than  water  was  its  wine,  i 
Copius  was  its  honey,  plenteous  its  oil; 
All  fruits  were  upon  its  trees. 

Barley  was  there  and  spelt,  1 

Without  end  all  cattle.  1 

Moreover,  great  was  that  which  came  to  me,  ; 

Which  came  for  love  of  me,  \ 

When  he  appointed  me  sheik  of  the  tribe,  .\ 

From  the  choicest  of  his  land.  ^ 

I  portioned  the  daily  bread,  ] 

And  wine  for  every  day,  ' 
Cooked  flesh,  and  fowl  in  roast; 

Besides  the  wild  goats  of  the  hills,  j 

Which  were  trapped  for  me,  and  brought  to  me;  j 

Besides  that  which  my  dogs  captured  for  me.  I 

There  was  much  —  made  for  me,  I 

And  milk  in  every  sort  of  dish  cooked.  | 
I  spent  many  years. 

My  children  became  strong,  ^ 

Each  the  mighty  man  of  his  tribe.  i; 

The  messenger  going  north,  I 


THE   MIDDLE    KINGDOM.    2160-1788    B.C.      95 

Or  passing  southward  to  the  court. 
Turned  in  to  me. 


One  of  the  scenes  ^  in  the  tomb  of  Khnumhotep  II 
at  Benihasan  is  very  interesting.  It  represents  a 
party  of  thirty-seven  Bedwin  visiting  Sesostris  II, 
c.  1906-1887,  and  bringing  gifts.  Their  leader  is 
called  "Sheik  of  the  highlands,  Ibshe"  (Hebrew, 
Abshai).  In  another  place  they  are  referred  to  as 
"Asiatics  of  the  desert."  It  used  to  be  customary  to 
identify  them  with  Abraham  and  his  followers.  The 
identification  has  been  abandoned. 

The  next  light  from  Egyptian  monuments  on  Pales- 
tine and  Syria  comes  from  the  reign  of  Sesostris  III, 
c.  1887-1849.  There  must  have  been  other  expedi- 
tions into  Palestine  at  this  period  other  than  the  one 
described  on  the  Stela  of  Sebek-Khu  (called  Zaa),  for 
we  learn  from  the  Tale  of  Sinuhe,  who  was  an  exile 
in  Syria  just  before  the  time  of  Sebek-Khu,  that  the 
power  and  influence  of  the  Egyptian  king  were  known 
and  recognized  there.  Sebek-Khu  tells  us  that  he 
went  with  the  king,  his  master,  on  a  campaign  to  a 
district  called  Sekmem  (perhaps  Shechem)  in  Retenu 
(Syria).    The  Egyptians  defeated  the  Asiatics. 

Stela  of  Sebek-Khu 

His  majesty  proceeded  northward,  to  overthrow  the 
Asiatics.  His  majesty  arrived  at  a  district,  its  name  was 
Sekmem.  His  majesty  led  the  good  way  in  proceeding  to 
the  palace  of  "Life,  Prosperity,  and  Health,"  when  Sek- 

^  Newberry,  Beni  Hasan  I,  PI.  30. 


96  EGYPTIAN    SOURCES 

mem  had  fallen,  together  with  Retenu  the  wretched,  while 
I  was  acting  as  guard. 

Then  the  citizens  of  the  army  mixed  in  to  fight  with  the 
Asiatics.  Then  I  captured  an  Asiatic  and  had  his  weapons 
seized  by  two  citizens  of  the  army,  (for)  one  did  not  turn 
back  from  the  fight,  (but)  my  face  was  to  the  front,  and  I 
gave  not  my  back  to  the  Asiatic. 

As  Sesostris  lives,  I  have  spoken  in  truth.  Then  he  gave 
to  me  a  staff  of  electrum  into  my  hand,  a  bow,  and  a  dagger 
wrought  with  electrum,  together  with  his  (the  Asiatic's) 
weapons.^ 

Macalister  in  his  great  work.  The  Excavation  of  Gezer, 
Vol.  II,  pp.  307  ff.,  shows  how  common  were  Egyptian 
inscriptions,  scarabs,  etc.,  in  Gezer  as  early  as  the 
twelfth  dynasty,  c.  2000-1788  b.  c.  This  would  nat- 
urally presuppose  a  long  period  of  intercourse  between 
Egypt  and  Palestine  previous  to  the  twelfth  dynasty. 

The  Hyksos 

Very  little  is  known  of  these  people  other  than  that 
they  were  an  Asiatic  people  who,  taking  advantage 
of  the  weakness  of  the  thirteenth  to  the  seventeenth 
dynasties,  poured  down  into  Egypt  and  established 
themselves  in  the  Delta  as  rulers.  Up  to  the  present 
time  there  have  only  been  found  the  remains  of  three 
Hyksos  kings,  Khian,  Apophis  I,  and  Apophis  II,  the 
last  of  whom  Joseph  was  supposed  to  have  served. 

They  are  called  "Hyksos"  after  a  designation 
applied  to  them  by  Josephus  who  quotes  Manetho. 
Many  years  after  their  expulsion  from  Egypt,  the 
queen  Hatshepsut,  c.   1500  b.  c,  refers  to  them  as 

1  Garstang,  El-Ardbah,  Pis.  IV-V,  pp.  32-33. 


THE   MIDDLE    KINGDOM,  2160-1788  B.C.     97 

"Asiatics,"  and  "barbarians"  who  lived  in  Avaris. 
She  says,  referring  to  her  works  of  restoration:  "I 
have  raised  up  that  which  was  unfinished  since  the 
Asiatics  were  in  the  midst  of  Avaris  of  the  Northland, 
and  the  barbarians  were  in  the  midst  of  them  (the 
Northland),  overthrowing  that  which  was  made 
while  they  ruled  in  ignorance  of  Re."  The  biography 
of  Ahmose,  son  of  Ebana,  a  nobleman  of  El  Kab  in 
the  reign  of  Ahmose  I,  c.  1580-1557,  proves  that  the 
Hyksos  were  driven  from  the  city  Hatwaret  (Avaris) 
after  a  siege  of  six  years.  King  Ahmose  followed  them 
up  and  invaded  Syria,  as  we  learn  from  the  biography 
of  another  nobleman  of  El  Kab,  namely,  Ahmose-Pen- 
Nekhbet. 

As  many  as  four  hundred  years  after  the  expulsion 
of  the  Hyksos  a  story  gives  an  interesting  account  of 
them.  It  says:  "Now  it  came  to  pass  that  the  land 
of  Egypt  was  the  possession  of  the  polluted,  no  lord 
being  king  at  the  time  when  it  happened,  but  king 
Sekenenre,  he  was  ruler  of  the  Southern  city  [Thebes]. 
.  .  .  King  Apophis  was  in  Avaris,  and  the  whole 
land  was  tributary  to  him;  the  [Southland]  bearing 
their  impost,  and  the  Northland  likewise  bearing 
every  good  thing  of  the  Delta.  Now  King  Apophis 
made  Sutekh  his  lord,  serving  no  other  god,  who  was 
in  the  whole  land,  save  Sutekh.  He  built  the  temple 
in  beautiful  and  everlasting  work."  (Papyrus  Sallier, 
1, 11.  1-3.    After  Breasted.) 

Apophis,  one  of  the  Hyksos  kings,  engraved  upon  an 
altar,  now  at  Cairo,  a  dedication  which  reads:  "He 
(Apophis)  made  it  as  his  monument  for  his  father 
Sutekh  (Egyptian  name  for  a  Syrian  Baal),  lord  of 
Avaris,  when  he  (Sutekh)  set  all  lands  under  his  (i.e.. 


98  EGYPTIAN    SOURCES 

the  king's)  feet."  This  shows  that  the  dominions  of 
Apophis  in  Egypt  must  have  been  quite  extensive. 
Further,  an  elaborate  vase-lid  bearing  the  name  of 
Apophis  has  been  discovered  by  Evans  in  the  palace 
of  Knossos  in  Crete  {Annual  of  the  British  School  of 
ArchcBology  at  Athens,  VII,  Q5,  Fig.  21);  the  British 
Museum  possesses  a  granite  lion  with  the  cartouche 
of  Apophis  upon  the  breast;  and  scarabs  and  cylinders 
have  been  found  bearing  his  name  and  the  title  "ruler 
of  the  countries."  Scarabs  of  the  Hyksos  kings  have 
been  found  also  in  South  Palestine.  These  facts 
indicate  that  the  Egyptian  empire  of  the  Hyksos 
must  have  been  a  vast  one. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  here  that  a  Hyksos  pharaoh 
gives  his  name  on  his  scarabs  as  Jacob-her  or  Jacob-el. 
This  would  correspond  with  the  belief  that  it  was 
about  this  time  that  the  Jacob-tribes  entered  Egypt. 
The  Hebrews  who,  according  to  the  Old  Testament, 
sojourned  in  Egypt  might  well  have  been  a  part  of  the 
Hyksos  people. 


THE  EMPIRE,  FIRST  PERIOD,  1580-1350  b.  c. 

EIGHTEENTH  DYNASTY 

Ahmose  I,  c.  1580-1557  b.  c. 

As  we  have  already  seen,  it  was  in  the  reign  of  this 
king  that  the  Hyksos  were  driven  from  their  city 
Avaris.  Josephus  quoting  Manetho  throws  a  good 
deal  of  light  upon  this  problem  of  the  Hyksos. 

Campaign  against  the  Hyksos 

One  besieged  the  city  of  Avaris.  I  showed  valor  on  foot 
before  his  majesty.  Then  I  was  appointed  to  (the  ship) 
"  Shining-in-Memphis." 

One  fought  on  the  water  in  the  canal :  Pezedku  of  Avaris. 
Then  I  fought  hand  to  hand,  I  brought  away  a  hand.  It  was 
reported  to  the  royal  herald.    One  gave  me  the  gold  of  valor. 

Then  there  was  again  fighting  in  this  place;  I  fought 
again  hand  to  hand  there;  I  brought  away  a  hand.  One 
gave  to  me  the  gold  of  bravery  in  the  second  place. 

One  captured  Avaris;  I  took  captive  there  one  man  and 
three  women,  total  four  heads;  his  majesty  gave  them  to 
me  for  slaves.^ 

Campaign  in  Naharin^ 

Hereditary  prince,  count,  wearer  of  the  royal  seal,  chief 
treasurer,  herald  [of  his  lord  .  .  .  ],  Ahmose,  called  Pen- 
Nekhbet,  triumphant;   he  says:    "I  followed  king  Nebpeh- 

1  Lepsius,  Denkmdlery  HI,  12,  a  and  d;  Breasted,  Ancient 
Records,  II,  pp.  6-7. 

2  Naharin  is  Hebrew  Aram-Naharaim,  Old  Testament 
Mesopotamia. 


100  EGYPTIAN    SOURCES 

tire  (Ahmose  I),  triumphant.     I  captured  for  him  in  Zahi 
(a  place  in  Naharin)  a  Hving  prisoner  and  a  hand.^ 

The  Manetho-Josephus  Tradition 

There  was  a  king  of  ours  whose  name  was  Timaios,  in  whose 
reign  it  came  to  pass,  I  know  not  why,  that  God  was  dis- 
pleased with  us,  and  there  came  unexpectedly  men  of  ignoble 
birth  out  of  the  eastern  parts,  who  had  boldness  enough  to 
make  an  expedition  into  our  country,  and  easily  subdued  it 
by  force  without  a  battle.  And  when  they  had  got  our 
rulers  under  their  power,  they  afterwards  savagely  burnt 
down  our  cities  and  demolished  the  temples  of  the  gods, 
and  used  all  the  inhabitants  in  a  most  hostile  manner,  for 
they  slew  some  and  led  the  children  and  wives  of  others 
into  slavery.  At  length  they  made  one  of  themselves  king, 
whose  name  was  Salatis,  and  he  lived  at  Memphis  and  made 
both  Upper  and  Lower  Egypt  pay  tribute,  and  left  garri- 
sons in  places  that  were  most  suitable  for  them.  And  he 
made  the  eastern  part  especially  strong,  as  he  foresaw  that 
the  Assyrians,  who  had  then  the  greatest  power,  would 
covet  their  kingdom  and  invade  them.  And  as  he  found 
in  the  Saite  nome  a  city  very  fit  for  his  purpose,  which  lay 
east  of  the  arm  of  the  Nile  near  Bubastis,  and  with  regard 
to  a  certain  theological  notion  was  called  Avaris,  he  rebuilt 
it  and  made  it  very  strong  by  the  walls  he  built  around  it 
and  by  a  numerous  garrison  of  two  hundred  and  forty  thou- 
sand armed  men,  whom  he  put  into  it  to  keep  it.^ 

Thutmose  I,  c.  1540-1501 

Although  we  have  no  records  from  the  reign  of 
Amenhotep  I,  c.  1557  b.  c,  which  tell  of  his  Syrian 

^  Breasted,  op.  city  II,  p.  10.  There  is  another  brief  ref- 
erence to  his  wars  in  an  inscription  of  the  Karnak  Stela, 
Annales  du  Service  des  Antiquites  de  Vegypte,  IV,  27-29. 

^  Josephus,  Contra  Apion,  I,  14. 


EMPIRE,    FIRST  PERIOD,  •  15  80- 1  35  0    B'.C,      IQl, 

wars,  yet  we  learn  from  his  successor's  boast  of  rule 

as  far  as  the  Euphrates/  previous  to  his  own  conquest 

in  Syria,  that  he  must  have  carried  on  considerable 

campaigns  in  that  direction.     Thutmose  I,  successor 

of  Amenhotep,  after  conquering  Kush  to  above  the 

third  cataract,  turned  his  attention  to  Syria  where 

he  found   a  people   of   considerable  intelligence   and 

culture.     He  penetrated  as  far  as  Naharin,  a  country 

extending  from  the  Orontes  to  the  Euphrates.     A  great 

battle  took  place  in  which  many  Asiatics  were  slain 

and  large  numbers  taken  prisoner.      Thutmose  erected 

a  boundary  tablet  ^  marking  the  limits  of  his  Syrian 

possessions. 

Campaign  in  Asia 

After  these  things  one  journeyed  to  Retenu  to  wash  his 
heart  (take  revenge)  among  the  foreign  countries.  His 
majesty  arrived  at  Naharin,  his  majesty  found  that  foe 
when  he  was  planning  destruction,  his  majesty  made  a 
great  slaughter  among  them.  Numberless  were  the  living 
prisoners  which  his  majesty  brought  off  from  his  victories. 
Meanwhile  I  was  at  the  head  of  our  troops  and  his  majesty 
beheld  my  bravery.  I  brought  away  a  chariot,  its  horses, 
and  the  rider  as  a  living  prisoner,  and  took  them  to  his 
majesty.     One  presented  me  with  gold  in  double  measure.^ 

Again  I  served  for  king  Okheperkere  (Thutmose  I),  tri- 
umphantly. I  captured  for  him  in  the  country  of  Naharin 
twenty-one  hands,  one  horse,  and  one  chariot.^ 

^  Tombos  Stela,  Lepsius  Denkmdler,  Bd.  V,  HI,  5,  a. 

2  This  we  learn  from  the  fact  that  Thutmose  HI  states 
that  he  erected  a  boundary  tablet  beside  that  of  his  father 
(Thutmose  I).     This  tablet  must  be  the  one  referred  to. 

^  See  note  1,  p.  99. 

^  See  note  1,  p.  99.  Another  reference  is  made  to  Thut- 
mose I  as  he  "who  overthrows  the  Asiatics.''^  Biography  of 
Ineni,  Breasted,  op.  ciL^  II,  p.  42. 


lOa  '  '  EGYPTIAN    SOURCES 

Thutmose  II,  Thutmose  III,  AND  Hatshepsut, 
c.  1496-1447  B.  c. 

The  sentence  "The  Asiatics  came  to  him  bearing 
tribute,"  found  in  the  Assuan  Inscription  (Lepsius, 
Denkmaler,  III,  16,  a),  shows  us  that  Thutmose  II 
was  recognized  in  Asia.  This  is  corroborated  by  a 
very  fragmentary  text  (Naville,  Deir-el-Bahari,  III, 
80),  which  records  a  campaign  of  the  same  king  in 
Retenu  the  Upper. 

Before  the  reign  of  Thutmose  III  had  progressed 
very  far  the  city-kings  of  northern  Palestine  and 
Syria  combined  under  the  leadership  of  the  king  of 
Kadesh  to  defy  the  foreign  Egyptian.  In  this  move 
they  were  supported  by  the  consent  of  the  king  of  the 
Mitanni.  Thutmose  was  not  long  in  deciding  his 
next  step,  and  by  the  end  of  the  twenty-second  year 
of  his  reign  his  army  was  ready  to  start.  In  1479  he 
set  out  from  Tharu  on  the  northeastern  frontier  and 
in  less  than  a  month  he  encamped  near  Carmel.  The 
Asiatics  assembled  at  Megiddo,  in  the  plain  of  Esdrae- 
lon.  Thutmose  himself  led  the  attack,  the  enemy 
was  defeated,  and  shortly  afterwards  the  city  fell. 
He  then  proceeded  further  north,  capturing  city  after 
city  as  he  went,  and  in  six  months  after  his  departure 
from  Egypt  he  was  again  in  Thebes. 

He  made  other  campaigns  in  Asia.  In  the  twenty- 
ninth  year  he  invaded  Phoenicia  by  sea  and  was 
successful.  In  his  eighth  campaign,  in  the  thirty- 
third  year,  Thutmose  was  again  in  Syria  whose  kings 
he  conquered,  subdued  the  king  of  Mitanni,  and 
marched  as  far  as  the  Euphrates.     It  was  during  this 


EMPIRE,    FIRST    PERIOD,    1580-1350    B.C.    103 

campaign  that  the  battle  of  Carchemish  took  place. 
After  the  battle  he  crossed  the  Euphrates  and  set  up 
his  boundary  tablet.  On  his  way  back  he  found  the 
boundary  tablet  of  his  father  Thutmose  I,  and  set 
up  another  beside  it.  Besides  the  local  princes  of 
Naharin,  and  the  king  of  Babylonia,  the  people  of  the 
Kheta  (Hittites)  sent  tribute  and  rich  gifts.  During 
a  ninth  campaign  Thutmose  again  shattered  the  rising 
power  of  the  allies  of  Naharin,  and  also  on  a  thir- 
teenth campaign  he  received  gifts  from  the  Hittites. 
During  his  seventeenth  and  last  campaign  he  defeated 
his  old  enemy  Kadesh  which  put  an  end  to  Asiatic 
revolt  as  long  as  he  lived. 

In  time,  many  tales  were  written  about  the  wonders 
of  Thutmose's  campaigns  in  Asia.  One  tells  about 
Thutiy,  one  of  Thutmose's  generals,  who  cleverly 
captured  the  city  of  Joppa  by  smuggling  his  trained 
soldiers  into  the  fortress  concealed  in  donkey  panniers. 

As  we  have  already  seen,  it  was  in  the  reign  of  the 
queen  Hatshepsut  that  records  of  the  Hyksos  were 
made. 

Annals  of  the  Reign  of  Thutmose  III 

First  Campaign.  Year  22,  fourth  month  of  the  second 
season,  on  the  twenty-fifth  day  [his  majesty  was  in]  Tharu 
on  the  first  victorious  expedition  to  [extend]  the  boundaries 
of  Egypt  with  might.  ... 

Now  at  that  period  [the  Asiatics  had  fallen  into]  disagree- 
ment, each  man  [fighting]  against  [his  neighbor].  .  .  .  Now 
it  happened  [that  the  tribes]  .  .  .  the  people,  who  were 
there  in  the  city  of  Sharuhen;  behold,  from  Yeraza  to  the 
marshes  of  the  earth  (i.e.,  from  N.  W.  Judea  to  Euphrates), 
they  had  begun  to  revolt  against  his  majesty. 

Year  23,  first  month  of  the  third  season,  on  the  fourth 


104  EGYPTIAN    SOURCES 

day,  the  day  of  the  feast  of  the  king's  coronation,  (he  ar- 
rived) at  the  city,  the  possession  of  the  ruler,  Gaza. 

[Year  23]  first  month  of  the  third  season,  on  the  fifth  day; 
departure  from  this  place  in  might  ...  in  power,  and  in 
triumph,  to  overthrow  that  wretched  foe,  to  extend  the 
boundaries  of  Egypt,  according  as  his  father,  Amon-Re, 
[had  commanded  .  .  .  ]  that  he  seize.  Year  ^,  first  month 
of  the  third  season,  on  the  sixteenth  day,  (he  arrived)  at 
the  city  of  Yehem. 

[His  majesty]  ordered  a  consultation  with  his  valiant 
troops,  saying  as  follows:  "That  [wretched]  enemy,  [the 
chief]  of  Kadesh  has  come  and  entered  into  Megiddo;  he 
[is  there]  at  this  moment.  He  has  gathered  to  himself  the 
chiefs  of  [all]  the  countries  [which  are]  on  the  water  of  Egypt 
(subject  to  Egypt),  and  as  far  as  Naharin,  consisting  of  [the 
countries]  of  the  Kharu,  the  Kode,  their  horses,  their  troops, 
.  .  .  thus  he  speaks,  *I  have  arisen  to  [fight  against  his 
majesty]  in  Megiddo.'     Tell  ye  me  ..." 

They  spoke  in  the  presence  of  his  majesty,  "How  is  it 
that  [we]  should  go  upon  this  road,  which  threatens  to  be 
narrow?  While  they  [come]  and  say  that  the  enemy  is 
there  waiting,  holding  the  way  against  a  multitude.  Will 
not  horse  come  behind  [horse  and  man  behind]  man  like- 
wise.^ Shall  our  [advance-guard]  be  fighting  while  our 
[rear-guard]  is  yet  standing  yonder  in  Aruna  not  having 
fought.?  There  are  yet  two  (other)  roads:  one  road,  behold 
it  .  .  .  us,  for  it  comes  forth  at  Taanach,  the  other,  behold 
it  will  bring  us  upon  the  way  north  of  Zefti,  so  that  we  shall 
come  out  to  the  north  of  Megiddo.  Let  our  victorious 
lord  proceed  upon  [the  road]  he  desires;  (but)  cause  us  not 
to  go  by  a  diflScult  road."  [Then  follows  a  decision  of  the 
king  to  the  contrary  and  the  submission  of  the  officers  to  his 
decision.  They  depart  from  Yehem  and  arrive  at  the  city 
of  Aruna  in  the  mountains.  Then  follows  a  battle  near 
Taanach].  The  enemy  went  forth  ...  in  numerous  battle 
array  .  .  .  the  southern  wing  was  in  Taanach,  the  north 


EMPIRE,    FIRST    PERIOD,    1580-1350    B.C.    105 

wing  was  on  the  ground  south  of.  .  .  .  His  majesty  cried 
out  to  them  before  .  .  .  they  fell;  behold,  that  wretched 
foe  ...  of  the  city  of  Aruna. 

Now,  the  rear  of  the  victorious  army  of  his  majesty  was 
at  the  city  of  Aruna,  the  front  was  going  forth  to  the  valley 
of.  .  .  .  They  filled  the  opening  of  this  valley.  Then  they 
said  in  the  presence  of  his  majesty:  "Behold  his  majesty 
goeth  forth  with  his  victorious  army,  and  it  has  filled  the 
hollow  of  the  valley.  Let  our  victorious  lord  harken  to  us 
this  time,  and  let  our  lord  protect  for  us  the  rear  of  his  army 
and  his  people.  Let  the  rear  of  this  army  come  forth  to  us 
behind.  Then  shall  they  also  fight  against  these  barba- 
rians. Then  we  shall  not  need  to  take  thought  for  the  rear 
of  our  army."  His  majesty  halted  outside  and  waited  there, 
protecting  the  rear  of  his  victorious  army. 

Behold  when  the  front  had  reached  the  exit  upon  this 
road,  the  shadow  had  turned  (afternoon),  and  when  his 
majesty  arrived  at  the  south  of  Megiddo  on  the  bank  of  the 
brook  Kina  the  seventh  hour  was  turning,  measured  by  the 
sun. 

Then  was  set  up  the  camp  of  his  majesty  and  command 
was  given  to  the  whole  army,  saying:  "Equip  yourselves! 
Prepare  your  weapons!  for  one  shall  advance  to  fight  with 
that  wretched  foe  in  the  morning."  Therefore  the  king 
rested  in  the  royal  tent,  the  affairs  of  the  chiefs  were  ar- 
ranged, and  the  provisions  of  the  attendants.  The  watch  of 
the  army  went  about,  saying,  "Steady  of  heart!  Steady  of 
heart!  Watchful!  Watchful!  Watch  for  life  at  the  tent 
of  the  king."  One  came  to  say  to  his  majesty,  "The  land 
is  well,  and  the  infantry  of  the  South  and  North  likewise." 

Year  23,  first  month  of  the  third  season,  on  the  twenty- 
first  day,  the  day  of  the  feast  of  the  new  moon,  correspond- 
ing to  the  royal  coronation,  early  in  the  morning,  behold, 
command  was  given  to  the  entire  army  to  move.  .  .  .  His 
majesty  went  forth  in  a  chariot  of  electrum,  arrayed  with 
his  weapons  of  war,  like  Horus,  the  Smiter,  lord  of  power; 


106  EGYPTIAN    SOURCES 

like  Montu  of  Thebes,  while  his  father,  Amon,  strengthened 
his  arms.  The  southern  wing  of  this  army  of  his  majesty- 
was  on  a  hill  south  of  the  brook  of  Kina,  the  northern 
wing  was  at  the  northwest  of  Megiddo,  while  his  majesty 
was  in  their  centre  with  Amon  as  the  protection  of  his  mem- 
bers. .  .  .  Then  his  majesty  prevailed  against  them  at  the 
head  of  his  army,  and  when  they  saw  his  majesty  prevailing 
against  them  they  fled  headlong  to  Megiddo  in  fear,  abandon- 
ing their  horses  and  their  chariots  of  gold  and  silver.  The 
people  hauled  them  up,  pulling  them  by  their  clothing,  into 
this  city;  the  people  of  this  city  having  closed  it  against 
them  [andJowered]  clothing  to  pull  them  up  into  this  city. 
Now,  if  only  the  army  of  his  majesty  had  not  given  their 
heart  to  plundering  the  things  of  the  enemy,  they  would 
have  captured  Megiddo  at  this  moment,  when  the  wretched 
foe  of  Kadesh  and  the  wretched  foe  of  this  city  were  hauled 
up  in  haste  to  bring  them  into  this  city.  The  fear  of  his 
majesty  had  entered  [their  hearts],  their  arms  were  power- 
less, his  serpent  diadem  was  victorious  among  them. 

Then  were  captured  their  horses,  their  chariots  of  gold 
and  silver  were  made  spoil.  Their  champions  lay  stretched 
out  like  fishes  on  the  ground.  The  victorious  army  of  his 
majesty  went  around  counting  their  portions.  Behold, 
there  was  captured  the  tent  of  that  wretched  foe  in  which 
was  his  son.  .  .  .  The  whole  army  made  jubilee,  giving 
praise  to  Amon  for  the  victory  which  he  had  granted  to 
his  son  on  [this  day,  giving  praise]  to  his  majesty,  exalting 
his  victories.  They  brought  up  the  booty  which  they  had 
taken,  consisting  of  hands,  of  living  prisoners,  of  horses,  char- 
iots of  gold  and  silver 

Then  spake  his  majesty  on  hearing  the  words  of  his  army, 
saying:  "Had  ye  captured  this  city  afterward,  behold,  I 
would  have  given  ...  Re  this  day;  because  every  chief 
of  every  country  that  has  revolted  is  within  it;  and  because 
it  is  the  capture  of  a  thousand  cities,  this  capture  of  Megiddo. 
Capture  ye  mightily,  mightily  ..." 


EMPIRE,    FIRST    PERIOD,    1580-1350    B.C.     107 

[His  majesty  commanded]  the  officers  of  the  troops  to  go 
.  .  .  ,  assigning  to  each  his  place.  They  measured  this  city, 
[surrounding  it]  with  an  inclosure,  walled  about  with  green 
timber  of  all  their  pleasant  trees.  His  majesty  himself 
was  upon  the  fortification  east  of  this  city.  ...  It  was 
walled  about  with  a  thick  wall.  ...  Its  name  was  made: 
"Menkheperre  (Thutmose  III)-is-the-Surrounder-of-the- 
Asiatics."  People  were  stationed  to  watch  over  the  tent 
of  his  majesty;  to  whom  it  was  said:  "Steady  of  heart! 
Watch  .  .  ."  His  majesty  commanded,  saying:  "Let 
not  one  among  them  come  forth  outside,  beyond  this  wall, 
except  to  come  out  in  order  to  knock  at  the  door  of  their 
fortification." 

Now,  all  that  his  majesty  did  to  this  city,  to  that 
wretched  foe  and  his  wretched  army,  was  recorded  on  each 
day  by  its  (the  day's)  name,  under  the  title  of .  .  .  .  Then  it 
was  recorded  upon  a  roll  of  leather  in  the  temple  of  Amon 
this  day. 

Behold,  the  chiefs  of  this  country  came  to  render  their 
portions,  to  do  obeisance  to  the  fame  of  his  majesty,  to  crave 
breath  for  their  nostrils,  because  of  the  greatness  of  his 
power,  because  of  the  might  of  the  fame  of  his  majesty  .  .  . 
came  to  his  fame,  bearing  their  gifts,  consisting  of  silver, 
gold,  lapis-lazuli,  malachite;  bringing  clean  grain,  wine, 
large  cattle,  and  small  cattle  —  for  the  army  of  his  majesty. 
Each  of  the  Kode  (coast-people)  among  them  bore  the  trib- 
ute southward.  Behold,  his  majesty  appointed  the  chiefs 
anew  for  .  .  . 

.  .  .  340  living  prisoners,  83  hands;  2,041  mares;  191  foals; 
6  stallions;  —  young — ;  a  chariot  wrought  with  gold,  its 
pole  of  gold,  belonging  to  that  foe;  a  beautiful  chariot, 
wrought  with  gold,  belonging  to  the  chief  of  Megiddo  .  .  . 
892  chariots  of  his  wretched  army;  total  924  chariots;  a 
beautiful  suit  of  bronze  armor,  belonging  to  the  chief  of 
Megiddo  .  .  .,  200  suits  of  armor,  belonging  to  his 
wretched  army;   502  bows;   7  poles  of  wood,  wrought  with 


108  EGYPTIAN    SOURCES 

silver,  belonging  to  the  tent  of  that  foe.  Behold  the  army 
of  his  majesty  took  .  .  .  1,929  large  cattle,  2,000  small  cattle, 
20,500  white  small  cattle.  [Then  follows  a  further  list  of 
goods  "afterward  taken  by  the  king"  from  different  cities, 
consisting  of  "dishes  of  costly  stone  and  gold,"  vases,  drink- 
ing vessels,  rings  of  gold  and  silver,  gold  and  silver  statues, 
chairs  inlaid  with  gold,  ivory,  ebony,  and  other  wood,  besides 
prisoners  and  slaves.  It  is  also  stated  that  his  majesty 
appropriated  the  harvest  of  the  fields  of  Megiddo].^ 

[There  is  another  fragmentary  account  of  the  siege  of 
Megiddo,  translated  by  Breasted,  Ancient  Recordsy  II,  pp. 
189-190,  but  it  does  not  add  materially  to  the  above]. 

Second  Campaign.  List  of  the  tribute  of  Asshur  and  of 
the  chiefs  of  Retenu  in  the  year  24.  [Here  follows  a  list  of 
lapis-lazuli  and  "stones  in  colors"  from  Assyria;  and  "the 
daughter  of  a  chief";  ornaments  of  gold,  lapis-lazuli;  horses; 
chariots  inlaid  with  gold,  etc.;  cattle;  incense;  wine; 
ivory,  and  other  valuables  from  the  Retenu.  A  second 
tribute  of  various  things  from  the  Assyrians  is  men- 
tioned 2]. 

Third  Campaign.  This  was  merely  a  trip  to  Syria  when 
plants  and  flowers  were  collected.' 

Fourth  Campaign.    No  extant  account. 

Fifth  Campaign.  Year  29.  Behold  his  majesty  was  in 
Zahi  subduing  the  countries  revolting  against  him,  on  the 
fifth  victorious  campaign.  Behold,  his  majesty  captured 
the  city  of  Wa.  .  .  .  This  army  offered  acclamations  to  his 
majesty,  giving  praise  to  Amon  for  the  victories  which  he 
gave  to  his  son.  They  were  pleasing  to  the  heart  of  his 
majesty  above  everything.     [Here  follows  an  account  of  a 

1  Lepsius,  Denkmdler,  Bd.  V,  III,  31,  &,  1.  67;  III,  32, 
11.  1-32.  Brugsch,  Thesaurus,  1153-1166,  11.  1-79,  1-21. 
Breasted,  Ancient  Records,  II,  pp.  175  ff. 

2  Lepsius,  Denkmdler,  Bd.  V,  III,  32,  11.  32-39;  Brugsch, 
Thesaurus,  1166-1168,  11.  21-28. 

.    3  Mariette,  Karnak,  28-31. 


EMPIRE,    FIRST    PERIOD,    1580-1350    B.C.     109 

sacrifice  to  Amon  consisting  of  oxen,  calves,  and  fowl;   and 
then  a  "list  of  the  plunder  taken  out  of  the  city  "]. 

Behold,  ships  were  taken  .  .  .  laden  with  everything, 
with  slaves,  male  and  female;  copper,  lead,  emery,  and  every- 
thing good.  Afterward  his  majesty  proceeded  southward 
to  Egypt,  to  his  father,  Amon-Re,  with  joy  of  heart. 

Behold,  his  majesty  overthrew  the  city  of  Arvad,  with 
its  grain,  cutting  down  all  its  pleasant  trees.  Behold,  there 
were  found  the  products  of  all  Zahi.  Their  gardens  were 
filled  with  their  fruit,  their  wines  were  found  remaining  in 
their  presses  as  water  flows,  their  grain  on  the  terraces  .  .  . 
it  was  more  plentiful  than  the  sand  of  the  shore.  The  army 
were  overwhelmed  with  their  portions.  [Then  follows  the 
tribute  ].^ 

Sixth  Campaign.  Year  30.  Behold,  his  majesty  was  in 
the  land  of  Retenu  on  the  sixth  victorious  expedition  (by 
ship)  of  his  majesty.  He  arrived  at  the  city  of  Kadesh, 
overthrew  it,  cut  down  its  groves,  harvested  its  grain.  He 
came  to  the  land  of  Shywl,  arrived  at  the  city  of  Simyra, 
arrived  at  the  city  of  Arvad,  doing  likewise  to  it. 

List  of  the  tribute  brought  to  the  souls  of  his  majesty  by 
the  chiefs  of  Retenu  in  this  year.  Behold,  the  children  of 
the  chiefs  and  their  brothers  were  brought  to  be  in  strong- 
holds in  Egypt.  Now,  whosoever  died  among  these  chiefs, 
his  majesty  would  cause  his  son  to  stand  in  his  place.  List 
of  the  children  of  chiefs  brought  in  this  year:  .  .  .  persons; 
181  slaves,  male  and  female;  188  horses;  40  chariots  wrought 
with  gold  and  silver  and  painted.^ 

Seventh  Campaign.  Booty  brought  from  the  city  of 
Ullaza,  which  is  upon  the  shore  of  Zeren,  490  living  captives; 
...  of  the  son  of  that  foe  of  Tunip;  chief  of  the  .  .  .  who 
was  there,   1;    total  494  persons.     26  horses;  13  chariots, 

^  Brugsch,  Thesaurus,  1168-1170,  11.  1-7.  Breasted,  op, 
cit.,  pp.  194  ff. 

2  Bissing,  Statistische  Tafel,  11.  7-9.  Breasted,  op.  cit., 
pp.  197  ff. 


110  EGYPTIAN    SOURCES 

and  their  equipment  of  all  the  weapons  of  war.  Verily, 
his  majesty  captured  this  city  in  a  short  hour,  and  all  its 
property  was  spoil.  [Then  follows  the  "tribute  of  the 
princes  of  Retenu"  in  detail,  besides  provisions  received  at 
the  different  Phoenician  harbors].  The  harvest  of  the  land 
of  the  Retenu  was  reported,  consisting  of  much  clean  grain, 
grain  in  the  kernel,  barley,  incense,  green  oil,  wine,  fruit, 
every  pleasing  thing  of  the  country;  they  shall  apportion 
it  to  the  treasury,  according  as  the  impost  of  the  ...  is 
counted  .  .  .,  together  with  green  stone,  every  costly  stone 
of  this  country,  and  many  stones  of  brilliancy;  all  the  good 
things  of  this  country.^ 

Eighth  Campaign.  Behold,  his  majesty  was  in  the  land  of 
Retenu;  he  arrived  ....  He  set  up  a  tablet  east  of  this  water 
(Euphrates);  he  set  up  another  beside  the  tablet  of  his 
father,  the  king  of  Upper  and  Lower  Egypt,  Okheperkere 
(Thutmose  I). 

Behold,  his  majesty  went  north  capturing  the  towns  and 
laying  waste  the  settlements  of  that  foe  of  wretched  Nah- 
arin  ...  he  pursued  after  them  an  iter  of  sailing;  not  one 
looked  behind  him,  but  they  fled,  indeed,  like  a  herd  of 
mountain  goats;  yea,  the  horses  fled  ....  [Here  comes  a 
list  of  the  booty  taken]. 

His  majesty  arrived  at  the  city  of  Niy,  going  southward, 
when  his  majesty  returned,  having  set  up  his  tablet  in  Na- 
harin,  extending  the  boundaries  of  Egypt.  .  .  .  [Here  fol- 
lows a  "list  of  the  tribute  brought  to  his  majesty  by  the 
chiefs  of  this  country."  The  supplies  of  the  harbors  of 
Lebanon;  the  tribute  of  the  chief  of  Shinar  (Biblical  Shinar 
=  Babylon) ;  and  the  tribute  of  Kheta  (Hittites)  the  Great]. ^ 

Ninth  Campaign.  Year  34.  Behold,  his  majesty  was  in 
the  land  of  Zahi  ....  he  surrendered  fully  to  his  majesty 
with  fear.     [Here  follows  a  list  of  towns  captured,  captives 

^  Bissing,  Statistische  Tafel,  11.  9-17. 
2  Bissing,  Statistische  Tafel,  11.  17-29. 


EMPIRE,    FIRST    PERIOD,    1580-1350    B.C.      Ill 

brought,  and  other  tribute  received;  then  comes  the  "trib- 
ute of  the  chiefs  of  the  Retenu  in  this  year";  then  harbors 
are  suppHed  *'  with  every  good  thing  of  that  which  his  majesty 
received  in  Zahi,  consisting  of  Keftyew  ships,  Byblus  ships, 
and  Sektu  ships  of  cedar  laden  with  poles,  and  masts,  to- 
gether with  great  trees  of  the  ...  of  his  majesty  "J.^ 

Tenth  Campaign,  Year  35.  Behold,  his  majesty  was  in 
the  land  of  Zahi  on  the  tenth  victorious  expedition.  When 
his  majesty  arrived  at  the  city  of  Araina,  behold,  that 
wretched  foe  of  Naharin  had  collected  horses  and  people; 
his  majesty  ...  of  the  ends  of  the  earth.  They  were 
numerous  .  .  .  they  were  about  to  fight  with  his  majesty. 
Then  his  majesty  advanced  to  fight  with  them;  then  the 
army  of  his  majesty  furnished  an  example  of  attack,  in  the 
matter  of  seizing  and  taking.  Then  his  majesty  prevailed 
against  these  barbarians  by  the  souls  of  his  father  Amon 
...  of  Naharin.  They  fled  headlong,  falling  one  over 
another,  before  his  majesty.  [Then  follows  a  list  of  booty 
from  the  barbarians  of  Naharin,  among  which  are  recorded 
five  bows  of  Kharu  (Palestine)].^ 

There  is  no  extant  account  of  the  eleventh  and  twelfth  cam^ 
paigns. 

Thirteenth  Campaign.  Year  38.  Behold,  his  majesty 
was  in  ...  on  the  thirteenth  victorious  expedition.  Be- 
hold, his  majesty  was  overthrowing  ...  in  the  district  of 
Nuges  (southern  Lebanon).  [Here  follows  the  "list  of  booty 
which  the  army  of  his  majesty  brought  away  from  the  dis- 
trict of  Nuges."  Then  the  tribute  of  Zahi  is  given  in  detail]. 

Behold  every  harbor  was  supplied  with  every  good  thing 
according  to  their  agreement  of  each  year,  in  going  north- 
ward or  southward;  the  impost  of  Lebanon  likewise;  the 
harvest  of  Zahi,  consisting  of  clean  grain,  green  oil,  incense, 
wine.^ 


1  Bissing,  op.  cit,  11.  29-37.      ^  Bissing,  op.  dt.,  11.  37-44. 
3  Brugsch,  Thesaurus,  1178-1181,  11.  2-9. 


112  EGYPTIAN    SOURCES 

Fourteenth  Campaign.  Year  39.  Behold,  his  majesty 
was  in  the  land  of  Retenu  on  the  fourteenth  victorious  expe- 
dition, after  his  going  to  defeat  the  fallen  ones  of  Shasu 
(Bedwin).  [Then  follows  a  list  of  Syrian  tribute.  The  har- 
bors are  likewise  supplied].^ 

The  fifteenth  campaign  inscriptions  show  only  lists  of 
tribute  from  Cyprus,  Kush,  and  Wawat;  and  the  sixteenth 
campaign,  list  of  tribute  from  Retenu,  the  Hittites,  Kush, 
and  Wawat. 

Seventeenth  Campaign.  Year  42.  .  .  .  the  Fenkhu.  Be- 
hold, his  majesty  was  upon  the  coast  road,  in  order  to  over- 
throw the  city  of  Erkatu  (in  Syria)  and  the  cities  of  .  .  . 
Kana  .  .  .;  this  city  was  overthrown,  together  with  its 
districts.  His  majesty  arrived  at  Tunip,  overthrew  that 
city,  harvested  its  grain,  and  cut  down  its  groves  .  .  .  the 
citizens  of  the  army.  Behold,  he  came  in  safety,  arrived  at 
the  district  of  Kadesh,  captured  the  cities  therein.  [Here 
follows  a  list  of  tribute  from  Kadesh,  Tunip,  Tinay  and 
other  districts].^ 

A  Lebanon  Fortress 

...  in  the  land  of  Retenu  as  a  fortress  which  his  majesty 
built  in  his  victories  among  the  chiefs  of  Lebanon,  the  name 
of  which  is:  "Menkheperre  (Thutmose  III)-is-the-binder-of- 
the-barbarians."  ^ 

Gift  to  Amon 

My  majesty  gave  to  him  (Amon)  three  cities  in  Retenu 
the  upper:  Nuges  was  the  name  of  one,  Yenoam  was  the 
name  of  another,  Herenkeru  was  the  name  of  another.  The 
dues  consisting  of  the  impost  of  the  fiscal  year,  the  divine 
offerings,  of  my  father  Amon.  .  .  .* 

1  Brugsch,  Thesaurus,  1181-1182,  11.  9-13. 

2  Brugsch,  Thesaurus,  1183-1185,  11.  10-20. 
^  Breasted,  op.  cit,  II,  pp.  218  ff. 

*  Lepsius,  Denkmdler,  III,  30,  h. 


EMPIRE,    FIRST    PERIOD,    1580-1350    B.C.      113 


Biography  of  Amenemhab  ^ 

I  (Amenemhab)  fought  hand  to  hand  in  the  land  of  Negeb 
(South  of  Palestine).  I  brought  off  three  men,  Asiatics,  as 
living  prisoners.  When  his  majesty  came  to  Naharin  I 
brought  off  three  men  from  the  fight  there;  I  set  them 
before  thy  majesty  as  living  prisoners. 

Again  I  fought  hand  to  hand  on  that  expedition  in  the 
land  of  "The-Height-of-Wan"  on  the  west  of  Aleppo.  I 
brought  off  thirteen  Asiatics  as  living  prisoners,  thirteen 
men;  seventy  living  asses;  thirteen  bronze  spears;  the 
bronze  was  wrought  with  gold.  .  .  . 

Again  I  fought  on  that  expedition  in  the  land  of  Carchem- 
ish.  I  brought  off  ...  as  living  prisoners.  I  crossed 
over  the  water  of  Naharin,  while  they  were  in  my  hand,  to 
...  ;  I  set  them  before  my  lord.  He  rewarded  me  with  a 
great  reward.  .  .  . 

I  beheld  the  royal  victories  of  the  king  Menkheperre 
(Thutmose  III),  given  life,  in  the  country  of  Senzar  (on 
the  Orontes),  when  he  made  a  great  slaughter  among  them. 
I  fought  hand  to  hand  before  the  king,  I  brought  off  a  hand 
there.     He  gave  to  me  the  gold  of  honor.  .  .  . 

Again  I  beheld  his  bravery  while  I  was  among  his  fol- 
lowers. He  captured  the  city  of  Kadesh.  I  was  not  absent 
from  the  place  where  he  was.  I  brought  off  two  men,  lords, 
as  living  prisoners.  I  set  them  before  the  king,  the  lord  of  the 
two  lands,  Thutmose,  living  forever.  He  gave  to  me  gold, 
because  of  bravery,  before  the  whole  people.  .  .  .  [Here 
follows  a  fragmentary  account].  Again  I  beheld  his  vic- 
tory in  the  country  of  Tikhsi  the  wretched,  in  the  city  of 
Mero.     I  fought  hand  to  hand  therein  before  the  king.     I 

^  Breasted,  Ancient  Records,  II,  pp.  227  ff.  This  is  an 
account  of  the  experiences  of  one  of  Thutmose's  oflScers 
during  his  campaigns  in  Syria.  It  is,  therefore,  merely 
parallel  with  the  above  campaign  accounts. 


114  EGYPTIAN    SOURCES 

brought  off  Asiatics,  three  men,  as  living  prisoners.  .  .  . 
[Here  follows  the  account  of  an  elephant  hunt  in  Niy]. 

The  prince  of  Kadesh  sent  forth  a  mare  before  the  army 
in  order  to  —  them,  she  entered  among  the  army.  I  pur- 
sued after  her  on  foot,  with  my  sword,  and  I  ripped  open 
her  belly;  I  cut  off  her  tail,  I  set  it  before  the  king;  while 
there  was  thanksgiving  to  God  for  it.  He  gave  me  joy,  it 
filled  my  body,  with  rejoicing  he  endued  my  limbs. 

His  majesty  sent  forth  every  valiant  man  of  his  army, 
in  order  to  pierce  the  wall  for  the  first  time,  which  Kadesh 
had  made.  I  was  the  one  who  pierced  it,  being  the  first  of 
all  the  valiant.  No  other  before  me  did  it.  I  went  forth, 
I  brought  off  two  men,  lords,  as  living  prisoners.  Again  my 
lord  rewarded  me  because  of  it,  with  every  good  thing  for 
satisfying  the  heart  of  the  king's  presence. 

The  Fragments  of  Karnah  Pylon  VII  ^  contain  records 
of  Thutmose  Ill's  campaigns  and  spoil  taken;  and 
the  Building  Inscription  of  Karnah  Ptah-Temple  ^ 
refers  to  the  capture  of  Megiddo. 


Hymn  of  Victory 
Utterance  of  Amon-Re,  lord  of  Thebes: 

Thou  comest  to  me,  thou  exultest,  seeing  my  beauty, 

0  my  son,  my  avenger,  Menkheperre,  living  for  ever. 

1  shine  for  love  of  thee, 

My  heart  is  glad  at  thy  beautiful  comings  into  my  temple; 
My  two  hands  furnish  thy  limbs  with  protection  and  life. 
How  pleasing  is  thy  pleasantness  toward  my  body. 
I  have  established  thee  in  my  dwelling, 
I  have  worked  a  marvel  for  thee; 

1  Legrain,  Annales  du  Service,  II,  272-279,  IV,  PI.  III. 

2  Legrain,  op.  cit.  III,  107-111. 


EMPIRE,    FIRST    PERIOD.    1580-1350    B.C.       115 

I  have  given  to  thee  might  and  victory  against  all  countries, 

I  have  set  thy  fame  even  the  fear  of  thee  in  all  lands. 

Thy  terror  as  far  as  the  four  pillars  of  heaven; 

I  have  magnified  the  dread  of  thee  in  all  bodies, 

I  have  put  the  roaring  of  thy  majesty  among  the  Nine  Bows. 

The  chiefs  of  all  countries  are  gathered  in  thy  grasp, 

I  myself  have  stretched  out  my  two  hands, 

I  have  bound  them  for  thee. 

I  have  bound  together  the  Nubian  Troglodytes  by  tens  of 
thousands  and  thousands. 

The  Northerners  by  hundreds  of  thousands  as  captives. 

I  have  felled  thine  enemies  beneath  thy  sandals. 

Thou  hast  smitten  the  hordes  of  rebels  according  as  I  com- 
manded thee. 

The  earth  in  its  length  and  breadth.  Westerners  and  East- 
erners are  subject  to  thee. 

Thou  tramplest  all  countries,  thy  heart  glad; 

None  presents  himself  before  thy  majesty, 

While  I  am  thy  leader,  so  that  thou  mayest  reach  them. 

Thou  hast  crossed  the  water  of  the  Great  Bend  (i.e.,  the 
Euphrates)  of  Naharin  with  victory,  with  might, 
I  have  decreed  for  thee  that  they  hear  thy  roarings  and 
enter  into  caves; 

I  have  deprived  their  nostrils  of  the  breath  of  life. 

I  have  set  the  terrors  of  thy  majesty  in  their  hearts. 

My  serpent-diadem  upon  thy  brow,  it  consumes  them. 

It  makes  captive  by  the  hair  the  Kode-folk, 

It  devours  those  who  are  in  their  marshes  with  its  flame. 

Cut  down  are  the  heads  of  the  Asiatics,  their  remnant  is  not; 

Fallen  are  the  children  of  their  mighty  ones. 

I  have  caused  thy  victories  to  circulate  among  all  lands. 

My  serpent-diadem  gives  light  to  thy  dominion. 

There  is  no  rebel  of  thine  as  far  as  the  circuit  of  heaven; 

They  come,  bearing  tribute  upon  their  backs. 

Bowing  down  to  thy  majesty  according  to  my  command. 

I  have  made  powerless  the  invaders  who  came  before  thee; 


116  EGYPTIAN    SOURCES 

Their  hearts  burned,  their  Hmbs  trembling. 

I  have  come,  causing  thee  to  smite  the  princes  of  Zahi; 

I  have  hurled  them  beneath  thy  feet  among  their  highlands. 

I  have  caused  them  to  see  thy  majesty  as  lord  of  radiance. 

So  that  thou  hast  shone  in  their  faces  like  my  image. 

I  have  come,  causing  thee  to  smite  the  Asiatics, 

Thou  hast  made  captive  the  heads  of  the  Asiatics  of  Retenu. 

I  have  caused  them  to  see  thy  majesty  equipped  with  thy 

adornment. 
When  thou  takest  the  weapons  of  war  in  the  chariot, 
I  have  come,  causing  thee  to  smite  the  eastern  land, 
Thou  hast  trampled  those  who  are  in  the  districts  of  God's- 

Land. 
I  have  caused  them  to  see  thy  majesty  like  a  circling  stai:. 
When  it  scatters  its  flame  in  fire,  and  gives  forth  its  dew. 
I  have  come,  causing  thee  to  smite  the  western  land, 
Keftyew  and  Cyprus  are  in  terror. 
I  have  caused  them  to  see  thy  majesty  as  a  young  bull. 
Firm  of  heart,  ready-horned,  irresistible. 
I  have  come,  causing  thee  to  smite  those  who  are  in  their 

marshes. 
The  lands  of  Mitanni  tremble  for  fear  of  thee. 
I  have  caused  them  to  see  thy  majesty  as  a  crocodile. 
Lord  of  fear  in  the  water,  unapproachable. 
I  have  come,  causing  thee  to  smite  those  who  are  in  the  isles; 
Those  who  are  in  the  midst  of  the  Great  Green  (Sea)  hear 

thy  roarings. 
I  have  caused  them  to  see  thy  majesty  as  an  avenger 
Who  rises  upon  the  back  of  his  slain  victim. 
I  have  come,  causing  thee  to  smite  the  Tehenu  (Libyans), 
The  isles  of  the  Utentyew  are  subject  to  the  might  of  thy 

prowess. 
I  have  caused  them  to  see  thy  majesty  as  a  fierce-eyed  lion. 
Thou  makest  them  corpses  in  their  valleys. 
I  have  come,  causing  thee  to  smite  the  uttermost  ends  of  the 

lands. 


EMPIRE,    FIRST    PERIOD,    1580-1350    B.C.     117 

That  which  the  Great  Circle  encircles  is  inclosed  in  thy  grasp. 

I  have  caused  them  to  see  thy  majesty  as  a  lord  of  the  wing. 

Who  seizeth  upon  that  which  he  seeth,  as  much  as  he  desires. 

I  have  come,  causing  thee  to  smite  those  who  are  in  front  of 
their  land. 

Thou  hast  smitten  the  Sand-dwellers  as  living  captives. 

I  have  caused  them  to  see  thy  majesty  as  a  southern  jackal. 

Lord  of  running,  stealthy-going,  who  roves  the  Two  Lands. 

I  have  come,  causing  thee  to  smite  the  Nubian  Troglodytes, 

As  far  as  .  .  .  they  are  in  thy  grasp. 

I  have  caused  them  to  see  thy  majesty  as  thy  two  brothers, 

I  have  united  their  two  arms  for  thee  in  victory. 

Thy  two  sisters,  I  have  set  them  as  protection  behind  thee. 

The  arms  of  my  majesty  are  above,  warding  off  evil. 

I  have  caused  thee  to  reign,  my  beloved  son, 

Horus,  Mighty  Bull,  Shining  in  Thebes,  whom  I  have  be- 
gotten, in  uprightness  of  heart. 

Thutmose,  living  for  ever,  who  hast  done  for  me  all  that  my 
ka  desired; 

Thou  hast  erected  my  dwelling  as  an  everlasting  work. 

Enlarging  and  extending  it  more  than  the  past,  which  had 
been  done. 

The  great  doorway  ... 

Thou  hast  feted  the  beauty  of  Amon-Re, 

Thy  monuments  are  greater  than  those  of  any  king  who  has 
been. 

When  I  commanded  thee  to  do  it,  I  was  satisfied  therewith; 

I  established  thee  upon  the  Horus-throne  of  millions  of  years; 

Thou  shalt  continue  life.  .  .  .^ 

There  is  an  interesting  scene  on  the  tomb  of  Menk- 
heperreseneb,  high  priest  of  Amon,   in  the  time  of 

^  Rouge,  Revue  archeologique,  N.  S.,  IV;  Mariette,  Album 
photographiquey  PI.  32;  Mariette,  Karnaky  PI.  11;  Breasted, 
Ancient  Records,  II,  pp.  262  ff. 


118  EGYPTIAN    SOURCES 

Thutmose  III,  whiph  represents  him  as  treasurer 
receiving  magnificent  tributes  of  vessels  of  gold,  silver, 
etc.,  from  Asiatics.  These  people  are  referred  to  as 
"the  chief  of  Keftyew,  the  chief  of  Kheta,  the  chief 
of  Tunip,  the  chief  of  Kadesh." 


Amenhotep  II,  1448-1420  b.  c. 

On  the  death  of  Thutmose  III,  Syria  revolted. 
Amenhotep  accordingly  marched  into  northern  Syria, 
and,  after  many  victories,  set  up  his  tablet  in  Naharin. 
When  he  returned  to  Egypt  he  took  with  him  seven 
princes  whom  he  sacrificed  to  Amon. 


Karnak  Stela 

His  majesty  was  in  the  city  of  Shemesh-Edom  (in  the 
north  of  Palestine).  His  majesty  furnished  an  example  of 
bravery  there.  His  majesty  himself  fought  hand  to  hand. 
Behold,  he  was  like  a  fierce-eyed  lion,  smiting  the  countries 
of  Lebanon. 

First  month  of  the  third  season,  day  26;  his  majesty 
crossed  over  the  ford  of  the  Orontes  on  this  day,  caused  to 
cross  .  .  .  like  the  might  of  Montu  of  Thebes.  His  majesty 
raised  his  arm,  in  order  to  see  the  end  of  the  earth.  His 
majesty  saw  a  few  Asiatics  coming  on  horses  .  .  .  coming 
at  a  gallop.  Behold,  his  majesty  was  equipped  with  his 
weapons  of  battle,  his  majesty  conquered  with  the  might 
of  Set  in  his  hour.  They  retreated  when  his  majesty  looked 
at  one  of  them.  Then  his  majesty  himself  overthrew  their 
.  .  .  with  his  spear.  .  .  .  Behold,  he  carried  away  this 
Asiatic  ...  his  horses,  his  chariot,  and  all  his  weapons  of 
battle.  His  majesty  returned  with  joy  of  heart  to  his 
father,  Amon.     He  gave  to  him  a  feast.  ... 


EMPIRE,    FIRST    PERIOD,    1580-1350    B.C.     119 

Second  month  of  the  third  season,  day  10;  passing  south- 
ward towards  Egypt,  his  majesty  proceeded  by  horse  to 
the  city  of  Niy.  Behold  these  Asiatics  of  this  city,  men 
as  well  as  women,  were  upon  their  walls  praising  his 
majesty.  .  .  . 

Behold,  his  majesty  heard  saying,  that  some  of  those 
Asiatics  who  were  in  the  city  of  Ikathi  had  plotted  to  make 
a  plan  for  casting  out  the  infantry  of  his  majesty  who  were 
in  the  city,  in  order  to  overturn  .  .  .  who  were  loyal  to  his 
majesty.  Then  his  majesty  put  them  in  ...  in  this  city 
.  .  .  and  he  pacified  this  city.  .  .  .  His  majesty  .  .  .  the 
tribe  of  Kiatithana  united.  .  .  .  His  chiefs,  his  wives,  his 
children  were  carried  captive,  and  all  his  people  like- 
wise. .  .  . 

.  .  .  day  27;  his  majesty  went  forth  from  the  house  of 
the  Beautiful-of-Face  (Ptah)  and  proceeded  to  .  .  .  Mem- 
phis, bearing  the  plunder  which  he  had  taken  in  the  country 
of  Retenu.     [Here  follows  a  list  of  tribute].^ 


Amada  and  Elephantine  Stelae 

References  in  the  text  of  these  stelae  are  made  to 
the  Retenu,  and  it  is  here  that  we  leam  about  the 
sacrifice  of  the  seven  Asiatic  princes:  "When  his 
majesty  returned  with  joy  of  heart  to  his  father, 
Amon,  he  slew  with  his  own  weapon  the  seven  princes 
who  had  been  in  the  district  of  Tikhsi."  ^ 

The  Karnak  Chapel  monument^  has  a  relief 
showing  Amenhotep  II  leading  Asiatic  captives  to 
Amon.      The  prisoners   come  from:    Upper    Retenu, 

^  Wiedemann,  PSBA,  XI,  422-423;  Legrain,  AnnaleSy 
IV,  126-132;   Breasted,  op.  cit,  II,  pp.  305  ff. 

2  Lepsius,  Denhmdler,  Bd.  V,  III,  65,  a;  Breasted,  op.  city 
II,  pp.  309  ff.  3  Legrain,  AnnaleSy  V,  34-35. 


120  EGYPTIAN    SOURCES 

Lower  Retenu,  Kiani,  Kadesh,  Aleppo,  Niy,  Sezar 
(Senzar),  Thenew,  and  Ketne. 

The  TuRRA  Inscription  ^  has  the  following  interest- 
ing phrase:  "Who  (the  king)  erected  tablets  in  the 
land  of  Naharin." 

Thutmose  IV,  1420-1411  b.  c. 

Although  we  have  not  much  connected  material 
about  Thutmose  IV's  relations  with  Syria  yet  it  seems 
certain  that  he  still  held  sway  in  that  country;  and 
though  Naharin  paid  tribute,  yet  he  found  it  necessary 
to  carry  on  a  campaign  there.  A  fragmentary  text 
refers  to  that  "which  his  majesty  captured  in  Naharin, 
the  wretched,  on  his  first  victorious  campaign."  An 
officer  of  Thutmose  calls  himself  the  "attendant*  of 
the  king  on  his  expeditions  in  the  south  and  north 
countries;  going  from  Naharin  to  Karoy  behind  his 
majesty,  while  he  was  upon  the  battlefield;  companion 
of  the  feet  of  the  Lord  of  the  Two  Lands,  chief  of  the 
stable  of  his  majesty,  high  priest  of  Onouris,  Amen- 
hotep,  triumphant."  Other  inscriptions  have  the  follow- 
ing important  references:  "Bringing  in  the  tribute  of 
Naharin  by  the  princes  of  this  country";  "Bringing 
in  the  tribute  of  Retenu";  "Settlement  of  the  'For- 
tress of  Menkheprure,'  with  Syrians,  which  his  majesty 
captured  in  the  city  of  .  .  .  Gezer?" 

The  ObeHsk  in  Rome  tells  of  cedar  which  Thutmose 
IV  cut  in  Retenu,  and  the  stela  of  Semen  in  Paris  calls 
him  "conqueror  of  Syria."  ^ 

1  Vyse,  Pyramids^  III,  95. 

2  See  Breasted,  Ancient  Records,  II,  pp.  320  ff.,  for  infor- 
mation about  the  inscriptions  of  the  reign  of  Thutmose  IV. 


EMPIRE,    FIRST   PERIOD.    1580-1350    B.C.     121 

Amenhotep  III,  1411-1375  b.  c. 

This  sovereign  inherited  an  empire  of  the  greatest 
splendor,  and  exceedingly  vast.  Nubia  paid  tribute, 
and  his  sway  in  Asia  was  unchallenged.  There  was 
carried  on  between  Egypt  and  the  different  Asiatic 
nations,  such  as  Babylonia,  Assyria,  Mitanni,  Syria, 
etc.,  a  lively  communication  which  we  have  fortunately 
preserved  to  us  in  the  Tell  el-Amarna  Letters,  which 
were  written  in  the  Babylonian  language.  This 
correspondence  was  kept  up  till  late  in  the  reign  of 
Amenhotep' s  son  and  successor,  Amenhotep  IV  or 
Ikhnaton. 

The  letters  show  us  that  a  marriage  was  arranged 
between  a  daughter  of  Amenhotep  III  and  a  Baby- 
lonian king,  and  Amenhotep  himself  married  Giluk- 
hipa  daughter  of  the  king  of  Mitanni.  Although  his 
sway  in  Syria  seemed  to  be  unquestioned,  we  learn 
from  a  tablet  of  victory  (Petrie,  Six  Temples,  X)  that 
it  was  necessary  for  him  to  make  a  campaign  there 
when  he  smote  the  "Naharin  with  his  mighty  sword." 
A  scarab  published  in  PSBA,  XXI,  p.  155,  refers  to 
him  as  "conqueror  of  Shinar"  although  there  is  no 
further  light  on  this  matter.  However,  things  were 
beginning  to  change  in  Asia;  the  Hittites  were  begin- 
ning to  attack  northern  Syria;  and  the  Khabiri 
(Hebrews)  were  knocking  at  the  door  of  Palestine. 

Amenhotep  IV  (Ikhnaton),  1375-1358  b.  c. 

In  Ikhnaton  we  have  the  most  remarkable  person- 
ality known  to  ancient  literature.  Instead  of  govern- 
ing his  vast  empire,  he  devoted  his  time  to  religious 


im  EGYPTIAN    SOURCES 

reforms,  and  introduced  into  Egyptian  religious  thought 
a  real  though  perhaps  not  an  ethical  monotheism. 
During  his  reign  letters  poured  in  from  his  Asiatic 
vassals  asking  for  aid  against  the  fast  approaching 
Hebrews,  but  to  all  this  he  turned  a  deaf  ear.  As  a 
result  the  Hebrews  invaded  Palestine;  the  Hittites 
seized  Syria;  and  the  complete  dissolution  of  his 
Asiatic  empire  ensued.  Palestine  was  thus  lost  to 
Egypt  till  the  days  of  Seti  I,  1313  b.  c,  when  it  was 
again  recovered.  It  must  be  noticed,  however,  that 
during  the  reign  of  Tutenkhamon,  c.  1358-1350  b.  c, 
tribute  continued  to  be  paid  by  certain  Syrian  states; 
and  one  of  Ikhnaton's  successors,  namely,  Harmhab 
of  the  nineteenth  dynasty,  c.  1350-1315  b.  c,  really 
made  a  campaign  into  Asia,  as  the  phrase  "com- 
panion of  the  feet  of  his  lord  (Harmhab)  upon  the 
battlefield  on  the  day  of  slaying  the  Asiatics"  would 
show.^  Further,  Wiedemann,  in  the  PSBA,  XI,  425, 
published  a  Vienna  Fragment  from  which  it  seems  that 
certain  Asiatics  ask  for  permission  to  settle  in  Egypt 
in  this  same  reign  (Harmhab). 

^  Compare  the  list  of  names  of  captives  in  the  same  reign. 
MtiUer,  MVAG,  1897,  III,  276-278.  The  pictures  show 
that  some  of  the  captives  are  Asiatics. 


THE  EMPIRE,  SECOND  PERIOD,  1350-1150  b.  c. 

NINETEENTH  TO  TWENTIETH  DYNASTY 
Seti  I,  1313-1292  b.  c. 

From  the  very  beginning  of  his  reign,  Seti  I  laid 
plans  for  an  invasion  of  Asia.  He  already  knew  of 
the  invasion  of  the  Bedwin  tribes  into  Palestine  on 
account  of  the  lack  of  authority  there;  he  was  aware 
of  the  increasing  numbers  of  Asiatics  seeking  homes 
in  Egypt;  so  he  lost  no  time  in  invading  Palestine, 
taking  many  towns  on  his  way,  and  erecting  a  tablet 
commemorating  his  victory  in  the  Hauran.  After 
receiving  tribute  from  many  quarters  he  returned  to 
Egypt.  The  following  year  found  him  again  in  Pales- 
tine, attacking  Kadesh,  and  checking  the  Hittite 
advance  in  the  north.  Sometime  afterwards  a  treaty 
of  peace  was  negotiated  between  him  and  the  Hittite 
king,  Metella. 

The  extensive  Karnak  Reliefs  described  by 
Breasted,  in  Ancient  Records,  III,  pp.  37  ff.,  give  us  a 
series  of  scenes  representing  the  wars  of  Seti  I.  There 
is  not  much  explanatory  matter,  but  the  several  cam- 
paigns into  Asia  can  very  well  be  followed.  Reference 
is  made  to  his  "smiting  the  Asiatics"  and  "making  his 
boundary  as  far  as  his  desire  places  it."  He  extends 
"the  boundaries  of  Egypt  as  far  as  the  heavens  on 
every  side."  He  vanquished  the  Shasu  (Bedwins); 
a  town  of  Pekanan  (Canaan);  captured  Peher  and 
Bethshael  in  the  plain  of  Jezreel;    and  marched  to 


124  EGYPTIAN    SOURCES 

Akko,  Tyre,  and  Othu.  He  then  proceeds  further  north 
receiving  submission  and  tribute.  He  passed  Simyra 
and  reached  Ullaza.  When  he  returned  to  Egypt 
he  took  with  him  many  captives  and  much  tribute. 
There  is  a  reference  to  the  "great  chiefs  of  Retenu 
whom  his  majesty  carried  off  as  living  captives." 

Seti  punished  the  Bedwin  because  of  their  invasion 
of  Palestine  and  upsetting  his  authority  there.  These 
Bedwin  are  identified  by  Breasted  with  the  Khabiri 
of  the  Tell  el-Amarna  Letters,  and  he  is  undoubtedly 
right.  An  inscription  reads:  "One  came  to  say  to  his 
majesty:  'The  vanquished  Shasu,  they  plan  rebellion. 
Their  tribal  chiefs  are  gathered  together,  rising  against 
the  Asiatics  of  Kharu  (Palestinians).  They  have 
taken  to  cursing,  and  quarreling,  each  of  them  slaying 
his  neighbor,  and  they  disregard  the  laws  of  the 
palace.'"  For  this  the  king  severely  punishes  them, 
"he  leaves  not  a  limb  among  them,  and  he  that  escapes 
his  hand,  as  a  living  captive,  is  carried  off  to  Egypt." 

Shasu  and  Retenu  prisoners  are  presented  to  Amon 
in  great  detail  together  with  a  numerous  tribute. 
The  prisoners  are  then  slain  before  Amon. 

A  list  on  a  sphinx  in  his  temple  at  Kurna  preserves 
the  names  of  many  places  in  Asia  taken  by  Seti.  Some 
of  them  are:  Kheta,  Naharin,  Alasa,  Akko,  Simyra, 
Peher,  Bethshael,  Khamehem,  Yenoam,  Ullaza,  Kemed, 
Tyre,  Othu,  Bethanath,  Keremim. 

The  first  battle  on  record  between  Egypt  and  the 
Hittites  is  recorded  on  the  Karnak  Reliefs.  One 
text  reads:  "The  wretched  land  of  the  Hittites  among 
whom  his  majesty  made  a  great  slaughter";  and 
another  refers  to  Seti  as  the  mighty  Bull  "smiting  the 
Asiatics,    beating    down    the    Hittites,    slaying    their 


EMPIRE,  SECOND  PERIOD,   1350-1150,   B.C.      125 

chiefs  .  .  .  charging  among  them  Hke  a  tongue  of 
fire,  making  them  as  that  which  is  not."  Many  Hittite 
prisoners  and  much  spoil  are  taken  to  Egypt  and 
presented  to  Amon. 

Rameses  II,  1292-1225  b.  c. 

It  was  the  height  of  Rameses'  ambition  to  regain 
the  great  Asiatic  empire  of  his  forefathers.  Accord- 
ingly, very  early  in  his  reign  he  set  out  for  Palestine 
and  Syria,  his  first  object  being  to  get  control  of  Kadesh, 
the  key  to  the  Orontes  and  the  stronghold  of  the 
Hittites.  The  Hittites  were  prepared  for  him,  and 
there  followed  a  long  and  doubtful  battle  at  Kadesh, 
the  result  of  which  was  not  very  creditable  to  either 
side.  No  sooner  had  Rameses  returned  to  Egypt 
than  the  princes  of  Syria  and  Palestine  revolted  again. 
This  recalled  him  to  Asia,  when  he  extended  his  con- 
quests as  far  as  Naharin  where  he  set  up  a  statue  of 
himself.  In  1272  b.  c.  a  permanent  treaty  of  peace 
was  made  with  Khetasar,  the  Hittite  king,  which  was 
inscribed  on  a  silver  tablet.  This  treaty,  which  lasted 
all  the  long  life  of  the  ** Pharaoh  of  the  Oppression," 
was  further  cemented  by  the  marriage  of  the  king  to 
two  daughters  of  the  Hittite  monarch. 

Battle  of  Kadesh 

/  Poem  of  Pentaur.  Beginning  of  the  victory  of  king 
Usermare-Setepnere  (Rameses  II),  who  is  given  life  forever, 
which  he  achieved  in  the  land  of  Kheta  and  Naharin,  in  the 
land  of  Arvad,  in  Pedes,  in  the  Derden,  in  the  land  of  Mesa, 
in  the  land  of  Kelekesh,  .  .  .  Carchemish,  Kode,  in  the  land 
of  Kadesh,  in  the  land  of  Ekereth,  and  Mesheneth.  .  .  . 


126  EGYPTIAN    SOURCES 

Behold,  his  majesty  prepared  his  infantry  and  his  chari- 
otry,  the  Sherden  (Sardinians)  of  the  captivity  of  his  majesty 
from  the  victories  of  his  sword.  .  .  .  They  gave  the  plan 
of  battle.  His  majesty  proceeded  northward,  his  infantry 
and  his  chariotry  being  with  him.  He  began  to  march  the 
goodly  way.  Year  5,  the  second  month  of  the  third  season, 
on  the  ninth  day,  his  majesty  passed  the  fortress  of  Tharu 
.  .  .  like  Montu  when  he  goes  forth.  Every  country  trem- 
bled before  him,  fear  was  in  their  hearts;  all  the  rebels  came 
bowing  down  for  fear  of  the  fame  of  his  majesty,  when  his 
army  came  upon  the  narrow  road,  being  like  one  who  i:^ 
upon  the  highway  of  .  .  . 

Now  after  many  days  after  this,  behold,  his  majesty  was 
in  Usermare-Meriamon  (south-Lebanon),  the  city  of  .  .  . 
cedar.  His  majesty  proceeded  northward,  and  he  then 
arrived  at  the  highland  of  Kadesh.  Then  his  majesty 
marched  before,  like  his  father,  Montu  lord  of  Thebes,  and 
crossed  over  the  channel  of  the  Orontes,  there  being  with 
him  the  first  division  of  Amon  (named):  *'Victory-of-King- 
Usermare-Setepnere. " 

When  his  majesty  reached  the  city  (Kadesh),  behold,  the 
wretched,  vanquished  chief  of  Kheta  had  come,  having 
gathered  together  all  countries  from  the  ends  of  the  sea  to 
the  land  of  Eleta,  which  came  entire:  The  Naharin  like- 
wise, and  Arvad  .  .  .  Mesa,  Keshkesh,  Kelekesh,  Luka, 
Kezweden,  Carchemish,  Ekereth,  Kode,  the  whole  land 
of  Nuges,  Mesheneth  and  Kadesh.  He  left  not  a  country 
which  was  not  brought,  together  with  their  chiefs  who  were 
with  him,  every  man  bringing  his  chariotry,  an  exceeding 
great  multitude,  without  its  equal.  They  covered  the 
mountains  and  the  valleys;  they  were  like  grasshoppers 
with  their  numbers.  He  left  neither  silver  nor  gold  in  his 
land  but  he  plundered  it,  all  of  its  possessions,  and  gave  to 
every  country  in  order  to  bring  them  with  him  to  battle. 

Behold,  the  wretched,  vanquished  chief  of  Kheta,  together 
with  the  numerous  allied  countries,  were  stationed,  con- 


EMPIRE,    SECOND    PERIOD  ,   1  350-1 1  50  B.  C.     127 

cealed  in  battle  array,  behind  the  city  of  Kadesh,  while 
his  majesty  was  alone  by  himself,  with  his  bodyguard,  and 
the  division  of  Amon  was  marching  behind  him.  The 
division  of  Re  crossed  over  the  river-bed  on  the  south  side 
of  the  town  of  Shabtuna  (short  distance  south  of  Kadesh), 
at  the  distance  of  an  iter  (about  1^  miles)  from  the  division 
of  Amon.  .  .  .  The  division  of  Ptah  was  on  the  south  of  the 
city  of  Aranami  (south  of  Shabtuna);  and  the  division  of 
Sutekh  was  marching  upon  the  road.  His  majesty  had 
formed  the  first  rank  of  all  the  leaders  of  his  army,  while 
they  were  on  the  shore  of  the  land  of  the  Amor  (Mediter- 
ranean). Behold,  the  wretched,  vanquished,  chief  of  Kheta 
was  stationed  in  the  midst  of  the  infantry  which  was  with 
him,  and  he  came  not  out  to  fight,  for  fear  of  his  majesty. 
Then  he  caused  the  people  of  the  chariotry  to  go,  an  exceed- 
ingly vast  multitude  like  the  sand,  being  three  people  to 
each  span.  Now,  they  had  made  their  combinations  (thus) : 
among  every  three  youths  was  one  man  of  the  vanquished 
of  Kheta,  equipped  with  all  the  weapons  of  battle,  Lo,  they 
had  stationed  them  in  battle  array,  concealed  behind  the 
city  of  Kadesh. 

They  came  forth  from  the  south  side  of  Kadesh,  and  they 
cut  through  the  division  of  Re  in  its  middle,  while  they  were 
marching  without  knowing  and  without  being  drawn  up 
for  battle.  The  infantry  and  chariotry  of  his  majesty 
retreated  before  them.  Now,  his  majesty  had  halted  on  the 
north  of  the  city  of  Kadesh,  on  the  west  side  of  the  Orontes. 
Then  came  one  to  tell  it  to  his  majesty. 

His  majesty  shone  like  his  father  Montu,  when  he  took 
the  adornments  of  war;  as  he  seized  his  coat  of  mail,  he 
was  like  Baal  in  his  hour.  The  great  span  which  bore  his 
majesty,  called:  "Victory-in-Thebes,"  from  the  great  stables 
of  Rameses,  was  in  the  midst  of  the  leaders.  His  majesty 
halted  in  the  rout;  then  he  charged  into  the  foe,  vanquished 
the  Kheta,  being  alone  by  himself  and  none  other  with  him. 
When  his  majesty  went  to  look  behind  him,  he  found  2,500 


128  EGYPTIAN    SOURCES 

chariotry  surrounding  him,  in  his  way  out,  being  all  the 
youth  of  the  wretched  Kheta,  together  with  its  numerous 
allied  countries:  from  Arvad,  from  Mesa,  from  Pedes,  from 
Keshkesh,  from  Erwenet,  from  Kezweden,  from  Aleppo, 
Eketeri,  Kadesh,  and  Luka,  being  three  men  to  a  span, 
acting  in  unison.  [Here  follows  a  section  which  on  account 
of  its  idealized  incidents  is  not  considered  very  reliable. 
Rameses  failed  to  take  Kadesh].^ 

II  Prose  Record,  Year  5,  third  month  of  the  third  season, 
day  9;  under  the  majesty  of  Horus.  [Here  follow  titles.] 

Behold,  his  majesty  was  in  Zahi  on  his  second  victorious 
campaign.  The  goodly  watch  in  life,  in  prosperity  and  in 
health,  in  the  tent  of  his  majesty,  was  on  the  highland  south 
of  Kadesh. 

When  his  majesty  appeared  like  the  rising  of  Re,  he 
assumed  the  adornments  of  his  father,  Montu.  When  the 
king  proceeded  northward,  and  his  majesty  had  arrived  at 
the  locality  south  of  the  town  of  Shabtuna,  there  came  two 
Shasu,  to  speak  to  his  majesty  as  follows:  "Our  brethren, 
who  belong  to  the  greatest  of  the  families  with  the  van- 
quished chief  of  Kheta;  for  the  vanquished  chief  of  Kheta 
sits  in  the  land  of  Aleppo  on  the  north  side  of  Tunip.  He 
fears  because  of  Pharaoh  to  come  south."  Now,  these 
Shasu  speak  these  words,  which  they  spoke  to  his  majesty, 
falsely,  (for)  the  vanquished  chief  of  Kheta  caused  them  to 
come  to  spy  where  his  majesty  was,  in  order  to  cause  the 
army  of  his  majesty  not  to  draw  up  for  fighting  him,  to 
battle  with  the  vanquished  chief  of  Kheta. 

Behold,  the  vanquished  chief  of  Kheta  came  with  every 
chief  of  every  country,  their  infantry  and  their  chariotry, 
which  he  had  brought  with  him  by  force,  and  stood,  equipped, 

^  Rouge,  Inscriptions  hieroglyphiqueSy  IV,  206-248; 
Brugsch,  Recueil  de  monuments,  II,  29-32,  40-42;  Daressy, 
REy  IX,  58;  Mariette,  Kamak,  48-51;  Mariette,  Abydos,  II, 
4-5;  J.  de  Rouge,  RE,  III-IX;  Breasted,  Ancient  Records, 
III,  pp.  135  ff.,  and  the  same  author's  Battle  of  Kadesh. 


EMPIRE,  SECOND    PERIOD,  1350-1150    B.C.     129 

drawn  up  in  line  of  battle  behind  Kadesh  the  Deceitful, 
while  his  majesty  knew  it  not.  Then  his  majesty  pro- 
ceeded northward  and  arrived  on  the  northwest  of  Kadesh; 
and  the  army  of  his  majesty  made  camp  there. 

Then,  as  his  majesty  sat  upon  a  throne  of  gold,  there 
arrived  a  scout  who  was  in  the  following  of  his  majesty,  and 
he  brought  two  scouts  of  the  vanquished  chief  of  Kheta. 
They  were  conducted  into  the  presence,  and  his  majesty 
said  to  them:  "What  are  ye?"  They  said:  "As  for  us,  the 
vanquished  chief  of  the  Kheta  has  caused  us  to  come  to 
spy  out  where  his  majesty  is."  Said  his  majesty  to  them: 
"He!  Where  is  he,  the  vanquished  chief  of  Kheta?  Behold, 
I  have  heard,  saying:  *He  is  in  the  land  of  Aleppo.' "  They 
said:  "See,  the  vanquished  chief  of  Kheta  is  stationed, 
together  with  many  countries,  which  he  has  brought  with 
him  by  force,  being  every  country  which  is  in  the  districts 
of  the  land  of  Kheta,  the  land  of  Naharin,  and  all  Kode. 
They  are  equipped  with  infantry  and  chariotry,  bearing 
their  weapons;  more  numerous  are  they  than  the  sand  of 
the  sea.  See,  they  are  standing,  drawn  up  for  battle,  behind 
Kadesh  the  Deceitful." 

Then  his  majesty  had  the  princes  called  into  the  presence, 
and  had  them  hear  every  word  which  the  two  scouts  of  the 
vanquished  chief  of  the  Kheta,  who  were  in  the  presence, 
had  spoken.  Said  his  majesty  to  them :  "  See  ye  the  manner 
wherewith  the  chiefs  of  the  infantry  (or,  peasantry)  and  the 
officials  under  whom  is  the  land  of  Pharaoh  have  stood 
daily,  saying  to  the  pharaoh:  'the  vanquished  chief  of 
Kheta  is  in  the  land  of  Aleppo;  he  has  fled  before  his  majesty, 
since  he  heard  that,  behold,  he  came.'  So  spoke  they  to  his 
majesty  daily.  But  see,  I  have  a  hearing  in  this  very  hour, 
with  the  two  scouts  of  the  vanquished  chief  of  Klieta,  to  the 
effect  that  the  vanquished  chief  of  Kheta  is  coming,  together 
with  the  numerous  countries  that  are  with  him,  being 
people  and  horses,  like  the  multitudes  of  the  sand,  they  are 
stationed  behind  Kadesh  the  Deceitful.    But  the  governors 


130  EGYPTIAN    SOURCES 

of  the  countries  and  the  officials  under  whose  authority  is 
the  land  of  Pharaoh  were  not  able  to  tell  it  to  us." 

The  princes  who  were  in  the  presence  of  his  majesty 
said:  "It  is  a  great  fault,  which  the  governors  of  the  coun- 
tries and  the  officials  of  Pharaoh  have  committed  in  not 
informing  that  the  vanquished  chief  of  Kheta  was  near  the 
king;  and  in  that  they  told  his  report  to  his  majesty 
daily." 

Then  the  vizier  was  ordered  to  hasten  the  army  of  his 
majesty,  while  they  were  marching  on  the  south  of  Shab- 
tuna,  in  order  to  bring  them  to  the  place  where  his  majesty 
was. 

Lo,  while  his  majesty  sat  talking  with  the  princes,  the 
vanquished  chief  of  Kheta  came,  and  the  numerous  coun- 
tries, which  were  with  him.  They  crossed  over  the  channel 
on  the  south  side  of  Kadesh,  and  charged  into  the  army  of 
his  majesty  while  they  were  marching,  and  not  expecting 
it.  Then  the  infantry  and  chariotry  of  his  majesty  re- 
treated before  them,  northward  to  the  place  where  his 
majesty  was.  Lo,  the  foes  of  the  vanquished  chief  of  Kheta 
surrounded  the  bodyguard  of  his  majesty,  who  were  by  his 
side. 

When  his  majesty  saw  them,  he  was  enraged  against  them, 
like  his  father,  Montu,  lord  of  Thebes.  He  seized  the 
adornments  of  battle,  and  arrayed  himself  in  his  coat  of 
mail.  He  was  like  Baal  in  his  hour.  Then  he  betook  him- 
seK  to  his  horses,  and  led  on  quickly,  being  alone  by  himself. 
He  charged  into  the  foes  of  the  vanquished  chief  of  Kheta, 
and  the  numerous  countries  which  were  with  him.  His 
majesty  was  like  Sutekh,  the  great  in  strength,  smiting  and 
slaying  among  them;  his  majesty  hurled  them  headlong, 
one  upon  another  into  the  water  of  the  Orontes. 

"I  charged  all  countries,  while  I  was  alone,  my  infantry 
and  my  chariotry  having  forsaken  me.  Not  one  among 
them  stood  to  turn  aboi^t.  I  swear,  as  Re  loves  me,  as  my 
father,  Atum,  favors  me,  that  as  for  every  matter  which 


EMPIRE,  SECOND  PERIOD,    1350-1150    B.C.     131 

his  majesty  has  stated,  I  did  it  in  truth,  in  the  presence  of 
my  infantry  and  my  chariotry."  ^ 

III.  Scene  Record,  There  are  many  valuable  and 
interesting  reliefs  depicting  the  battle  of  Kadesh  cut 
on  the  walls  of  many  temples  in  Egypt.  They  have 
been  published  by  Guieysse,  Recueil,  VIII,  120-143; 
and  by  Breasted,  Battle  of  Kadesh,  PI.  I-VII.  The 
scenes  are  very  vivid,  representing  a  council  of  war, 
preparations  for  battle,  battle  views,  captives,  etc. 
Each  scene  is  furnished  with  explanatory  notes. 

Revolt  and  Reconquest  of  Palestine 

The  wretched  city,  which  his  majesty  captured,  when*  it 
rebelled,  Askalon:  It  (i.e.,  the  city)  says:  "It  is  joy  to  be 
subject  to  thee,  and  dehght  to  cross  thy  boundaries.  Take 
thou  the  heritage,  that  we  may  speak  of  thy  valor  in  all 
unknown  countries"  ^  [the  re-taking  of  northern  Palestine  is 
depicted  in  scenes  showing  series  of  cities  from  which  the 
Egyptians  are  driving  prisoners.  The  sentence  "city  which 
his  majesty  plundered  in  the  year  eight"  occurs  beside  each 
city.  The  following  are  a  few  of  the  city-names  which  have 
survived:  "city  on  the  mound  of  Bethanath,"  Merem 
(Hebrew,  Merom),  Sherem  (Hebrew,  Salom),  Deper,  "in 
the  land  of  Amor."  The  accompanying  inscriptions  are 
historically  unimportant]. 

Campaign  in  Nahabin 

King  of  Upper  and  Lower  Egypt:  Usermare-Setepnere, 
son  of  Re:  Rameses-Meriamon,  given  life.  The  king  him- 
self, he  says:  "I  swear  as  Re  loves  me,  as  my  father  Autum 
favors  me,  as  my  nostrils  are  rejuvenated  with  satisfying 

1  Lepsius,  Denkmdler,  Bd.  VI,  III,  153;  Bd.  VII,  III, 
187,  c-e;  Brugsch,  Recueil  de  monuments y  II,  53;  Breasted, 
op,  dt.  Ill,  pp.  142  ff . ;  Breasted,  Battle  of  Kadesh, 

2  Lepsius,  Denkmdlery  Bd.  VI,  III,  145,  c. 


132  EGYPTIAN    SOURCES 

life.  ..."  As  for  this  overthrow,  they  stood  fighting  the 
city  of  IQieta,  wherein  the  statue  of  his  majesty  was.  His 
majesty  made  it  .  .  .  his  infantry  and  his  chariotry.  His 
majesty  was  at  the  front  of  his  infantry  and  his  chariotry 
.  .  .  the  vanquished  of  Kheta,  who  were  in  the  districts 
of  the  city  of  Tunip  in  the  land  of  Naharin.  His  majesty 
took  his  coat  of  mail  .  .  .  twice.  He  stood  fighting  the 
city  of  the  vanquished  Kieta,  at  the  front  of  his  infantry 
and  his  chariotry  .  .  .  not  having  his  coat  of  mail  upon  him. 
His  majesty  came  to  take  his  coat  of  mail  again.  It  was 
placed  upon  him,  when  .  .  .  the  vanquished  of  Kheta,  who 
were  in  the  districts  of  the  city  of  Tunip  in  the  land  of 
Naharin,  while  his  coat  of  mail  was  not  upon  him  ^  [there 
are  extant  lists  of  places  which  Rameses  conquered  at  this 
time;  among  them  are:  Naharin,  Lower  Retenu,  Arvad, 
Keftyew,  Ketne.  The  names  Shinar,  Asshur,  Cyprus,  etc., 
indicate  the  extent  of  his  influence]. 

The  famous  Treaty  of  the  Hittites,^  one  of  the  most 
remarkable  of  ancient  documents,  shows  us  that 
Egypt  met  her  match  in  the  Hittite  empire  under  the 
leadership  of  the  great  king  Khetasar.  The  text  of 
the  treaty  was  written  on  a  silver  tablet  and  con- 
tained, in  eighteen  paragraphs,  full  details  of  the 
treaty  of  peace  between  the  two  countries.  The 
contents  of  the  text  do  not  bear  closely  enough  upon 
Syria  and  Palestine  to  be  reproduced  here. 

Merneptah,  1225-1215  B.  c. 

Memeptah  the  so-called  "Pharaoh  of  the  Exodus" 
was  an  old  man  when  he  came  to  the  throne.  He  had 
been  reigning  only  about  three  years  when  he  became 

^  Sharpe,  Egyptian  Inscriptions,  II,  51. 
2  Breasted,  Ancient  Records,  III,  pp.   163  £f.;    MuUer, 
MVAG,  1902,  5. 


EMPIRE,  SECOND  PERIOD,  1350-1150,    B.C.     133 

aware  of  the  wide-spread  revolt  in  his  Asiatic  domin- 
ions. According  to  his  accounts,  he  quickly  proceeded 
to  Palestine  and  Syria  where  nothing  but  victory 
awaited  him.  Among  the  peoples  conquered  were 
some  Israel  tribes  who  were  in  Palestine  but  perhaps 
not  yet  in  any  settled  condition.  Meanwhile  Egypt 
was  attacked  from  the  West,  and  from  the  North  across 
the  sea.    This  attack  was,  however,  soon  repulsed. 

"Israel  Stela" 

The  so-called  "Israel  Stela"  really  contains  a  hymn 
of  victory  over  the  Libyans.  The  concluding  twelve 
lines  of  the  text  contain  a  general  account  of  the  sub- 
jugation of  certain  foreign  peoples  among  whom  is 
Israel.     It  belongs  to  the  year  five. 

The  kings  are  overthrown,  saying:  "Salam!" 

No  one  holds  up  his  head  among  the  Nine  Bows. 

Wasted  is  Tehenu, 

Kheta  is  pacified, 

Plundered  is  Pekanan  ("the  Canaan"),  with  every  evil. 

Carried  off  is  Askalon, 

Seized  upon  is  Gezer, 

Yenoam  is  made  as  a  thing  not  existing, 
risrael  is  desolate,  his  seed  is  not; 
''  Palestine  has  become  a  widow  for  Egypt. 

All  lands  are  united,  they  are  pacified; 

Everyone    that  is   turbulent  is   bound  by  king   Mer- 
neptah,  given  life  like  Re,  every  day.^ 

We  learn  from  the  "daybook  of  a  frontier  oflScial"  ^ 
that  Merneptah  in  his  third  year  was  in  Syria. 

1  Spiegelberg,  ^ix  Temples,  Pis.  XIII-XIV. 

2  Breasted,  Ancient  Records,  III,  pp.  270  ff.;  Erman, 
Zeitschrift  fur  dgypU  Sprache,  29,  32. 


134  EGYPTIAN    SOURCES 

"Year  three,  first  month  of  the  third  season  (ninth  month), 
fifteenth  day: 

There  went  up  the  servant  of  Baal,  Roy,  son  of  Zeper  of 
Gaza,  who  had  with  him  for  Syria  two  different  letters,  to 
wit:  (for)  the  captain  of  infantry,  Khay,^  one  letter;  (for) 
the  chief  of  Tyre,  Baalat-Remeg,  one  letter. 

Year  three,  first  month  of  the  third  season  (ninth  month), 
seventeenth  day:  there  arrived  the  captains  of  the  archers 
of  the  Well  of  Merneptah-Hotephirma,  which  is  on  the  high- 
way, to  report  in  the  fortress  which  is  in  Tharu." 

"Year  three,  first  month  of  the  third  season  (ninth 
month),  .  .  .  day:  There  returned  the  attendant,  Thutiy, 
son  of  Thekerem  of  Geket  (Gaza?);  Methdet,  son  of  Shem- 
Baal  (of)  the  same  (town);  Sutekhmose,  son  of  Eperdegel 
(of)  the  same  (town),  who  had  with  him,  for  the  place  where 
the  king  was  (for),  the  captain  of  infantry,  Khay,^  gifts  and 
a  letter." 

Rameses  III,  1198-1167  b.  c. 

Early  in  the  reign  of  Rameses  III  the  Mediterranean 
peoples,  among  whom  were  the  Peleset  (Philistines) 
of  Crete,  began  to  press  down  along  the  eastern  shores 
of  the  Mediterranean.  This  needed  immediate  atten- 
tion. Rameses,  accordingly,  set  out  for  Syria,  and 
(as  we  leam  chiefly  from  reliefs,  and  partly  from 
general  statements)  defeated  the  enemy  both  by  land 
and  by  sea. 

After  a  few  years  he  was  again  called  upon  to  act 
in  Asia,  and  this  time  he  found  the  Hittites  so  weakened 
by  repeated  onslaughts  of  the  Mediterranean  peoples 
that  they  no  longer  inspired  fear. 

^  These  points  prove  that  Merneptah  was  now  in  Syria. 


EMPIRE.    SECOND    PERIOD,    ETC.         135 


Medinet  Habu  Inscriptions 

"  The  northern  countries  are  unquiet  in  their  limbs,  even 
the  Peleset  (Philistines),  the  Thekel,  who  devastate.  Their 
soul  came  in  the  last  extremity.  They  were  warriors  upon 
land,  also  in  the  sea.  Those  who  came  on  land  .  .  .  Amon- 
Re  was  behind  them,  destroying  them;  those  who  entered 
into  the  river-mouths  were  like  wild  fowl,  creeping  into  the 
net,  made  .  .  .  their  arms.  Their  hearts  fluttered,  so 
transported  that  they  were  no  longer  in  their  bodies.  Their 
leaders  were  carried  off,  slain,  thrown  prostrate.  They  were 
made  captives.  .  .  . "  ^ 

"The  countries  .  .  .  ,  the  Northerners  in  their  isles  were 
disturbed,  taken  away  in  the  fray  ...  at  one  time.  Not 
one  stood  before  their  hands,  from  Kheta,  Kode,  Carchemish, 
Arvad,  Alasa,  they  were  wasted.  They  set  up  a  camp  in 
one  place  in  Amor.  They  desolated  his  people  and  his  land 
like  that  which  is  not.  They  came  with  fire  prepared  before 
them,  forward  to  Egypt.  Their  main  support  was  Peleset, 
Thekel,  Shekelesh,  Denyen,  and  Weshesh.  These  lands 
were  united,  and  they  laid  their  hands  upon  the  land  as  far 
as  the  circle  of  the  earth.  Their  hearts  were  confident,  full 
of  their  plans." 

"Now,  it  happened  through  this  god,  the  lord  of  gods,  that 
I  was  prepared  and  armed  to  trap  them  Hke  wild  fowl. 
He  furnished  my  strength  and  caused  my  plans  to  prosper. 
I  went  forth,  directing  these  marvellous  things.  I  equipped 
my  frontier  in  Zahi,  prepared  before  them.  The  chiefs,  the 
captains  of  infantry,  the  nobles,  I  caused  to  equip  the  harbor 
mouths,  Hke  a  strong  wall,  with  warships,  galleys,  and 
barges.  .  .  .  They  were  manned  completely  from  bow  to 
stern  with  valiant  warriors  bearing  their  arms,  soldiers  of 
all  the  choicest  of  Egypt,  being  like  lions  roaring  upon  the 
mountain-tops.  The  charioteers  were  warriors  .  .  .  and  all 
1  Breasted,  Ancient  Records,  IV,  pp.  24-25. 


136  EGYPTIAN    SOURCES 

good  officers,  ready  of  hand.  Their  horses  were  quivering 
in  their  every  limb,  ready  to  crush  the  countries  under  their 
feet.  I  was  the  valiant  Montu,  stationed  before  them,  that 
they  might  behold  the  hand-to-hand  fighting  of  my  arms. 
I,  king  Rameses  III,  was  made  a  far-striding  hero,  conscious 
of  his  might,  valiant  to  lead  his  army  in  the  day  of  battle." 
"  Those  who  reached  my  boundary,  their  seed  is  not;  their 
heart  and  their  soul  are  finished  for  ever  and  ever.  As  for 
those  who  had  assembled  before  them  on  the  sea,  the  full 
flame  was  in  their  front,  before  the  harbor-mouths,  and  a 
wall  of  metal  upon  the  shore  surrounded  them.  They  were 
dragged,  overturned,  and  laid  low  upon  the  beach;  slain 
and  made  heaps  from  stern  to  bow  of  their  galleys,  while 
all  their  things  were  cast  upon  the  water.  Thus  I  turned 
back  the  waters  to  remember  Egypt;  when  they  mention 
my  name  in  their  land,  may  it  consume  them,  while  I  sit 
upon  the  throne  of  Harakhte,  and  the  serpent-diadem  is 
fixed  upon  my  head,  like  Re.  I  permit  not  the  countries 
to  see  the  boundaries  of  Egypt  to  .  .  .  among  them.  As 
for  the  Nine  Bows,  I  have  taken  away  their  land  and  their 
boundaries;  they  are  added  to  mine.  Their  chiefs  and 
their  people  come  to  me  with  praise.  I  carried  out  the 
plans  of  the  All-Lord,  the  august,  divine  father,  lord  of  the 
gods."  ^     [Then  follows  a  song  of  triumph]. 


A  series  of  reliefs  depict  in  great  detail  a  naval  war 
against  the  invading  peoples  of  Asia  Minor,  and  the 
march  of  the  Egyptian  troops  into  Syria.  There 
are  accompanying  explanatory  inscriptions  in  which 
the  Philistines  and  Asiatics  are  frequently  mentioned. 

Other  reliefs  depict  a  later  war  with  Syria.  The 
explanatory  matter,  however,  is  exceedingly  meagre. 
The  pictures  show  the  storming  of  several  large  cities, 

*  Breasted,  Ancient  Records,  IV,  pp.  37-39. 


EMPIRE,    SECOND    PERIOD,    ETC.         137 

among  them  being  "the  city  of  Amor,"  Levi-El 
(Shiloh?),  Shabtuna  (south  of  Kadesh),  and  probably 
Kadesh  itself.  One  scene  is  very  interesting,  and  is 
accompanied  by  brief  inscriptions.  It  shows  seven 
captive  chiefs  who  are  kneehng  with  arms  tied  behind 
them.  Their  nationality  is  clearly  indicated  by  their 
features  and  costumes.  They  are:  Hittite,  Amorite, 
Asiatic,  Sherden,  Bedwi,  Teresh,  Philistine  (head 
lost).i 

Papyrus  Harris 

The  closing  portion  of  this  remarkable  document 
contains  a  brief  historical  account  of  the  reign  of 
Rameses  III.  This  papyrus  is  the  largest  manuscript 
extant,  being  133  feet  long,  and  containing  117  col- 
umns of  twelve  or  thirteen  lines  each.^ 

War  with  Asiatics 

I  extended  all  the  boundaries  of  Egypt;  I  overthrew  those 
who  invaded  them  from  their  lands.  I  slew  the  Denyen  in 
their  isles,  the  Thekel  and  the  Peleset  were  made  ashes.  The 
Sherden  and  the  Weshesh  of  the  sea,  they  were  made  as  those 
that  exist  not,  taken  captive  at  one  time,  brought  as  cap- 
tives to  Egypt,  like  the  sand  of  the  shore.  I  settled  them 
in  strongholds,  bound  in  my  name.  Numerous  were  their 
classes  like  myriads.  I  taxed  them  all,  in  clothing  and 
grain  from  the  storehouses  and  granaries  each  year. 

I  destroyed  the  people  of  Seir,  of  the  tribes  of  the  Shasu; 
I  plundered  the  tents  of  their  people,  their  possessions, 
likewise  their  cattle,  without  number.     They  were  bound 

1  Lepsius,  Denhmdler,  Bd.  VII,  III,  209,  h. 

2  Birch,  Facsimile  of  an  Egyptian  Hieratic  Papyrus  of 
the  Reign  of  Rameses  III,  now  in  the  British  Museum,  Pis. 
75-79. 


138  EGYPTIANSOURCES 

and  brought  as  captives,  as  tribute  of  Egypt.     I  gave  them 
to  the  gods,  as  slaves  into  their  houses. 


Rameses  IV  TO  Pesibkhenno  II,  c.  1167-945  b.  c. 

During  the  rule  of  the  weak  Ramessids,  the  Peleset 
(Philistines)  gradually  forged  southward  driving  before 
them  the  remnants  of  the  Amorites  and  Hittites  whom 
we  meet  in  Hebrew  literature.  The  Philistines  finally 
settled  on  the  southwest  border  of  Palestine  in  the 
rich  sea-plain  and  soon  came  into  conflict  with  the 
Hebrews  who  finally  succeeded  in  penning  them  up 
in  their  sea-coast  country. 

In  the  reign  of  Rameses  IX,  c.  1142-1123  b.  c.  — 
if  the  term  Khamwese  in  the  report  of  Wenamon 
refers  to  this  king  —  the  pharaoh's  messengers  were 
detained  as  long  as  seventeen  years  in  Syria,  a  fact 
which  throws  much  light  upon  the  estimate  of  Egypt's 
king  in  Syria  at  that  time.  The  same  conditions  pre- 
vailed in  the  reign  of  Rameses  XII,  c.  1118-1090  b.  c, 
when  Wenamon,  a  royal  messenger  to  Syria,  was  in- 
sulted and  barely  made  his  escape,  and  met  with  a 
similar  reception  in  Cyprus. 

It  was  near  this  time,  c.  1100  B.  c,  that  Tiglath- 
Pileser  III  appeared  in  the  West  and  received  presents 
of  a  tributary  nature  from  the  Egyptian  kiiig  Nesu- 
benebded. 

During  this  time  Egypt  was  so  weakened  and  the 
Assyrians  so  busy  at  home  that  the  Hebrews  were 
given  an  opportunity  to  establish  a  kingdom,  after 
the  conquest  of  Canaan.  They  developed  and  ex- 
tended it  till  in  the  days  of  Solomon  it  could  well 
claim  the  name  of  "Empire." 


RAMESES  IV  TO  PESIBKHENNO  II,  1167-945  B.C.   139 


The  Report  of  Wenamon  ^ 

This  document,  belonging  to  the  fifth  year  of  Rameses 
XII,  c.  1113  B.  c,  throws  a  good  deal  of  light  upon 
Egypt's  position  in  Syria  during  this  period.  In  the 
"year  five,  third  month  of  the  third  season,"  Wenamon 
departed  from  Thebes  to  secure  timber  for  the  building 
of  a  great  barge  for  Amon-Re,  king  of  the  gods.  After 
stopping  at  Tanis  for  a  while,  he  voyaged  to  Dor, 
"a  city  of  Thekel,"  and  Bedel,  its  king,  entertained 
him.  While  at  Dor  he  was  robbed  of  a  great  deal  of 
money,  and  immediately  reported  it  to  the  king,  telling 
him  that  the  money  belonged  to  the  "magnates  of 
Egypt."  The  king  disclaimed  all  responsibility,  but 
promised  to  try  to  help  him  secure  the  thief.  After 
a  fruitless  wait  he  departed  for  Tyre  and  then  from 
Tyre  for  Byblus.  On  coming  in  contact  with  certain 
Thekel  travellers,  he  seized  their  money  in  compensa- 
tion, as  he  blamed  the  Thekelites  for  robbing  him. 
When  he  arrived  in  Byblus,  the  prince  would  have  none 
of  him  and  ordered  him  to  betake  himself  away  from 
his  harbor.  Finally  Wenamon  gains  an  audience 
with  Zakar-Baal,  the  prince,  who  demands  his  pass- 
port. Wenamon  explains  his  business  in  Syria,  and 
Zakar-Baal  makes  clear  to  him  that  he  considers  him- 
self absolutely  independent  of  Egypt.  The  prince 
said:  "As  for  me,  I  am  myself  neither  thy  servant  nor 
am  I  the  servant  of  him  who  sent  thee."  In  reply  Wen- 
amon claims  that  Lebanon  and  her  princes  really  belong 
to  Amon.  He,  however,  succeeded  in  persuading 
Zakar-Baal  to  ship  timber  to  Egypt  and   send  his 

^  Breasted,  Ancient  Records^  IV,  pp.  274  ff. 


140  EGYPTIAN    SOURCES 

messengers  for  pay  which  was  promptly  given.  Then 
some  timber  was  delivered  to  Wenamon  himself. 
Here  occurs  the  reference  to  "the  messengers  of 
Khamwese"  who  is  identified  with  Rameses  IX. 

Wenamon's  troubles  were  not  yet  over.  The  The- 
kelites  in  eleven  ships  made  a  raid  upon  Wenamon's 
timber.  Wenamon  appealed  to  the  prince,  and  so 
did  the  Thekelites.  Zakar-Baal's  decision  was:  "I 
cannot  arrest  the  messenger  of  Amon  in  my  land. 
Let  me  send  him  away,  and  ye  shall  pursue  him  to 
arrest  him."  Wenamon  managed  to  escape  to  Alasa 
(Cyprus)  where  he  just  escaped  death  at  the  hands  of 
the  Cyprians  through  the  favor  of  the  queen.  Here 
the  report  is  broken  off. 

Sheshonk  I,  945-924  b.  c. 
1  K.u 
The  Biblical  Shishak  now  sat  on  the  Egyptian  throne, 
and  his  action  in  giving  Solomon  his  daughter  to  wife 
and  also  in  presenting  him  with  Gezer  as  a  gift  shows 
that  the  power  of  the  pharaoh  in  Palestine  was  not 
yet  dead.  Some  years  afterwards,  profiting  by  in- 
ternal strife  in  Israel  and  the  division  of  the  Hebrew 
kingdom,  Sheshonk  invaded  Palestine  about  926,  and 
according  to  the  Biblical  record  entered  Jerusalem  and 
took  away  much  of  its  wealth.  Sheshonk  also  took 
the  "Field  of  Abram,"  a  town  in  Palestine  not  yet 
identified.  This  expedition  is  depicted  in  the  Great 
Karnak  Relief,  Lepsius,  Denkmdler,  III,  252-253,  a, 
where  we  see  the  pharaoh,  before  his  god  Amon,  smit- 
ing the  Asiatics.  The  inscriptions  are  of  such  conven- 
tional nature  that  we  are  forced  to  depend  upon  the 
lists  of  names  for  an  idea  of  the  extent  of  his  cam- 


SHESHONK    I,    945-924    B.C.  141 

paigns.  The  following  are  the  chief  names  identified: 
Rabbith,  Taanach,  Shunem,  Bethshean,  Rehob,  Haph- 
araim,  Machanaim,  Gibeon,  Beth-horon,  Ajalon, 
Megiddo,  Aruna,  the  Field  of  Abram,  Jordan.  Alto- 
gether there  are  mentioned  about  one  hundred  and 
fifty  names,  of  which  about  seventy-five  are  preserved. 
They  range  from  Beth-Anath  in  the  north  of  Galilee 
to  Arad  in  the  south  of  Judah. 


OSORKON  II,   C.  874  TO   THE   CoNQUEST   OF 

Cambyses,  5^5  B.  c. 

2  K.  17-18,  23;  Jer.  44,  46-47 

Lack  of  Egyptian  and  Biblical  information  is  no 
proof  that  Egypt  and  Palestine  did  not  know  each  other 
in  these  later  days.  There  is  hope  that  the  new 
science  of  Archaeology  in  time  will  throw  as  much  light 
upon  this  period  as  it  has  upon  other  periods.  Already 
in  1910  A.  D.  there  was  discovered  in  Palestine  at 
Samaria  an  alabaster  vase,  inscribed  with  the  name 
of  Osorkon  II,  contemporary  of  Ahab  of  Israel,  which 
is  in  itself  evidence  of  intercourse  between  the  two 
countries.  What  further  excavations  will  bring  to 
light  remains  to  be  seen. 

The  Bible  tells  us,  2  K.  17,  that  Israel  and  other 
small  states  were  encouraged  to  revolt  by  an  otherwise 
unknown  Egyptian  king  called  So  in  the  time  of 
Shalmaneser  IV.  This  very  well  illustrates  Egypt's 
policy  at  that  time,  namely,  to  use  the  Western  states 
against  the  rising  power  of  Assyria.  However,  the 
conspiracy  failed,  for  Sargon  the  successor  of  Shal- 
maneser captured  Samaria  in  722,  and  in  715  extracted 
tribute  from  Egypt. 


142  EGYPTIAN    SOURCES 

Shabaka,  712-700,  continued  the  same  Egyptian 
policy.  It  was,  however,  opposed  in  Judah  by  Isaiah, 
but  soon,  in  the  reign  of  Hezekiah,  the  Egyptian  party 
prevailed,  and  in  701  Sennacherib  appeared  in  the  West. 
He  met  the  Egyptian  army  under  Taharka,^  a  nephew 
of  Shabaka,  at  Altaqu  the  same  year  and  completely 
defeated  it. 

There  has  been  found  in  Babylonia  a  clay  tablet 
bearing  the  seal  of  Shabaka  and  a  king  of  Assyria. 
This  may  point  to  a  treaty  between  the  two  powers. 

During  Taharka's  reign,  688-663,  Esarhaddon  de- 
termined to  4)ut  an  end  to  Egyptian  interference  in 
the  West.  He  accordingly  attacked  Egypt  in  673 
but  was  defeated.  This,  however,  did  not  discourage 
him,  and  in  670  he  renewed  his  attempt  and  this  time 
met  the  Egyptian  army  in  Palestine  where  he  defeated 
it.  He  followed  up  his  success  by  capturing  Memphis 
itself,  and  organized  northern  Egypt  into  an  Assyrian 
dependency.  After  Esarhaddon's  departure  the  Egyp- 
tians revolted.  Esarhaddon  again  approached  Egypt, 
but  died  on  his  way.  His  son  Ashurbanipal,  how- 
ever, took  charge  of  the  expedition  and  gained  many 
victories,  extending  his  influence  as  far  south  as  Thebes. 

In  663  Tanutamon  succeeded  his  father  Taharka 
and  retook  Memphis.  But  Ashurbanipal  reappeared 
soon,  and  drove  him  south,  taking  and  sacking  Thebes. 
These  Nubian  kings  of  Egypt  were  thus  gradually 
forced  south,  and  by  560  b.  c.  they  were  occupying 
their  capital  city  of  Meroe  south  of  the  fifth  cataract. 

»  Taharka  (Biblical,  Tirhakah,  2  K.  19:  9)  afterwards  be- 
came king  of  Ethiopia.  But  during  this  campaign  he  was 
commander-in-chief  of  Shabaka,  and  not  yet  "King  of 
Ethiopia." 


OSORKON  II,  CONQUEST  OF  CAMBYSES,  874-525  B.C.      143 

While  Ashurbanipal  was  busy  defending  himself 
against  the  Babylonians,  Psamtik  I,  663-609,  took 
Thebes.  A  Statue  Inscription  of  Hor  speaks  of  "doors 
of  fine  cedar  of  the  royal  domain."  This  shows  that 
probably  the  Lebanon  forests  were  under  the  pharaoh's 
control.  From  Herodotus  ^  we  learn  that  Psamtik's 
reign  was  a  prosperous  one,  especially  in  a  commercial 
way.  In  640  he  invaded  Philistia  and  besieged  Ashdod 
but  because  of  the  invasions  of  the  Scythians  from 
the  north  he  was  unable  to  accomplish  much. 

Necho,  609-593  b.  c,  was  ambitious  for  Asiatic  con- 
quests, and  in  his  first  year  he  invaded  Philistia  with 
•complete  success  (Jer.  47),  and  afterwards  continued  as 
far  as  Megiddo  where  he  met,  defeated,  and  slew  Josiah 
(2  K.  23).  He  then  proceeded  to  the  Euphrates. 
On  his  return  he  summoned  Jehoahaz  to  Riblah, 
imprisoned  him,  and  set  Jehoiakim  on  the  Judaean 
throne  (2  K.  23).  Babylonia  now,  under  its  energetic 
king  Nebuchadrezzar,  gave  signs  of  advance.  Necho 
met  him  in  605  at  Carchemish  where  Babylonia  was 
victorious  (Jer.  46),  and  Necho  retreated  to  Egypt  at 
once.  Babylon  now  became  overlord  of  the  West 
(2  K.  24),  and  in  597  captured  Jerusalem,  and  finally 
destroyed  it  in  586  b.  c. 

Apries  (the  Hophra  of  Jer.  44:30),  588-569  B.C., 
attacked  the  north  of  Syria  in  the  hope  of  opposing 
Nebuchadrezzar,  but  without  much  success.     In  586 
his  troops  pushed  south  to  aid  Zedekiah,  but  failed 
in  that  also.^     This  was  the  last  attempt  on  the  part 

^  The  student  should  here  consult  Greek  traditions  about 
the  Egyptians  collected  by  Herodotus  the  historian,  espe- 
cially Books  II-III. 

2  See  Diodorus  I,  68. 


144  EGYPTIAN    SOURCES 

of  Egypt  to  conquer  Syria-Palestine.  Egypt's  power 
was  declining,  and  soon  the  end  came,  when  Cambyses 
the  Persian  in  5^5  b.  c.  accomplished  her  destruction. 
It  is  worthy  of  note  that  the  pharaohs,  as  far  as  we 
know,  refrained  from  recording  their  failure  in  Syria- 
Palestine  which  we  have  reviewed  in  this  last  section, 
and  but  for  external  evidence  it,  perhaps,  never  would 
have  been  known  to  us. 


OTHER  SEMITIC  SOURCES 


THE  MOABITE  STONE 

The  Moabite  Stone  was  discovered  at  Dibon  by  the  Rev.  F, 
Klein  in  1868 ^  and  is  now  in  the  Louvre.  It  commemorates 
the  success  of  Mesha,  king  of  Moab,  against  Israel.  It  was 
dedicated  by  Mesha  to  his  god  Kemosh  about  850  B.  C.  A 
translation  will  be  found  on  pages  lJt7-lJi,9, 


THE     MOABITE     STONE 


OTHER  SEMITIC  SOURCES 

There  are  a  good  many  inscriptions  in  Phoenician, 
Hebrew,  Aramaic,  Nabataean,  South  Arabian,  and 
other  Semitic  languages  and  dialects,  but  very  few 
of  them  are  valuable  for  the  study  of  Old  Testament 
History.  Those  that  are  valuable  are  given  below  in 
translation. 

The  Moabite  Stone 

The  Moabite  stone  is  an  inscription  of  Mesha,  king 
of  Moab,  a  contemporary  of  Ahab  of  Israel.  It  was 
found  at  the  ancient  Dibon  in  1868  a.  d.,  and  is  now 
preserved  in  the  Louvre.  It  commemorates  the  suc- 
cessful efforts  made  by  Mesha  to  throw  off  the  yoke 
of  Israel.  Omri  had  oppressed  Moab  many  days,  and 
a  sanctuary  of  Yahweh  (Jehovah)  had  been  erected  at 
Nebo.  Omri's  successor,  Ahab,  exacted  heavy  tribute 
from  Mesha  (2  K.  3) .  While  Ahab  was  busy  with  Syria 
(1  K.  22)  Mesha  revolted.  2  K.  1 : 1,  3 : 5,  which  indicate 
that  the  revolt  took  place  after  the  death  of  Ahab,  are 
thus  corrected  by  this  contemporary  document. 

I  am  Mesha,  son  Kemosh  [-melekh],  king  of  Moab,  the 
Dibonite. 

My  father  was  king  over  Moab  thirty  years,  and  I  became 
king  after  my  father.  And  I  made  this  high-place  for 
Kemosh  in  Khorkhah,  [a  high-place  of  salvation],  because  he 
saved  me  from  all  the  [king]s,  and  because  he  caused  me  to 
see  my  desire  upon  all  them  that  hated  me. 


148  OTHER    SEMITIC    SOURCES 

Omri,  king  of  Israel,  —  he  afflicted  Moab  many  days, 
because  Kemosh  was  angry  with  his  land.  And  his  son 
succeeded  him,  and  he  also  said,  I  will  oppress  Moab.  In 
my  days  he  said  (thus).  But  I  saw  my  desire  upon  him  and 
upon  his  house,  and  Israel  perished  utterly  for  ever. 

Now  Omri  took  possession  of  the  land  of  Medeba,  and 
(Israel)  dwelt  in  it,  his  days  and  half  his  sons'  days,  forty 
years;  but  Kemosh  restored  it  in  my  days. 

And  I  built  Baal-Meon,  and  I  made  therein  the  reservoir, 
and  I  built  Kirjathaim. 

And  the  men  of  Gad  occupied  the  land  of  Ataroth  from 
of  old;  and  the  king  of  Israel  built  Ataroth  for  himself. 
And  I  fought  against  the  city  and  took  it,  and  put  to  death 
all  the  people  from  the  city,  a  gazingstock  unto  Kemosh 
and  unto  Moab,  and  I  removed  thence  the  altar-hearth  of 
DWDH,  and  I  dragged  it  before  Kemosh  in  Kerioth,  and 
I  caused  the  men  of  Sharon  and  the  men  of  Makharath  to 
settle  therein. 

And  Kemosh  said  to  me.  Go  take  Nebo  against  Israel. 
And  I  went  by  night  and  fought  against  it  from  the  break 
of  dawn  till  the  noontide,  and  I  took  it  and  slew  all,  7,000 
men  and  .  .  .  s  and  women  and  .  .  .  s  and  female  slaves, 
for  I  had  devoted  it  to  Ashtar-Kemosh;  and  I  took  thence 
the  al[tar]  of  Yahweh,  and  I  dragged  them  before  Kemosh. 

And  the  king  of  Israel  had  built  Jahaz,  and  occupied  it 
while  he  fought  against  me.  But  Kemosh  drove  him  out 
before  me.  I  took  from  Moab  200  men,  of  all  its  clans,  and 
led  them  against  Jahaz,  and  took  it,  to  add  it  to  Dibon. 

I  built  Khorkhah,  the  wall  of  the  forests,  and  the  wall  of 
the  Citadel;  and  I  built  its  gates,  and  I  built  its  towers;  and 
I  built  the  king's  house;  and  I  made  the  sluices  of  the 
reserv[oir  for  wa]ter  in  the  midst  of  the  city.  And  there 
was  no  cistern  in  the  midst  of  the  city  in  Khorkhah;  and 
I  said  to  all  the  people.  Make  you  each  a  cistern  in  his  house. 
And  I  cut  the  cutting  for  Khorkhah  with  the  help  of  prisoners 
from  Israel. 


THE    MOABITE    STONE  149 

I  built  Aroer,  and  I  made  the  road  by  the  Arnon.  I 
built  Beth-bamoth,  for  it  had  been  destroyed.  I  built 
Bezer,  for  it  was  in  ruins  .  .  .  [clans]  of  Dibon,  fifty,  for  all 
Dibon  was  loyal.  And  I  reigned  ...  a  hundred  in  the 
cities  which  I  added  to  the  land.  And  I  built  Medeba  and 
Beth-diblathaim.  And  as  for  Beth-baal-meon,  there  I 
placed  shepherds  .  .  .  sheep  of  the  land. 

And  as  for  Horonaim,  wherein  dwelt  .  .  .  and  .  .  . 
Kemosh  said  to  me,  Go  down,  fight  against  Horonaim; 
and  I  went  down  .  .  .  Kemosh  in  my  days,  and  .  .  .  from 
there  .  .  .  and  I  .  .  .^ 

The  Elephantine  Papyri 

Ezra  and  Nehemiah 

Only  a  few  years  ago,  in  1907,  Dr.  Otto  Rubensohn 
discovered  in  Elephantine,  an  island  in  the  Nile  opposite 
Assuan,  three  Aramaic  Papyri  which  are  especially 
valuable  because  of  their  relation  to  the  latest  his- 
torical books  of  the  Old  Testament,  the  Chronicles, 
and  the  books  of  Ezra  and  Nehemiah.  In  language 
they  are  identical  with  the  Aramaic  chapters  in  Ezra 
and  Daniel,  and  in  phraseology  they  present  many 
points  of  contact  with  the  oflficial  records  in  Ezra. 

Documents  I  and  III  are  very  valuable.  Docu- 
ment II  is  merely  a  duplicate  of  I  with  slight  varia- 
tions. 

Document  I  is  dated  in  the  seventeenth  year  of  king 
Darius,  and  both  Documents  I  and  III  state  that  the 
temple  of  Yahweh  at  Elephantine  was  destroyed  in  the 
fourteenth  year  of  King  Darius.  This  Darius  can  be 
neither  Darius  I,  521-485  b.  c,  on  account  of  the  lit- 
erary nature  of  the  Documents,   nor  can  it  be  Darius 

*  Cooke,  North-Semitic  Inscriptions,  pp.  1-2. 


150  OTHER    SEMITIC    SOURCES 

III,  who  reigned  only  five  years.  It,  therefore,  can 
only  be  Darius  II,  Nothus,  424-405  B.  c.  The  date  of 
the  Documents  is,  therefore,  407  b.  c.  As  Sanballat 
and  the  names  of  other  contemporaries  of  Nehemiah 
are  mentioned,  we  are  safe  in  concluding  that  the  Arta- 
xerxes  in  whose  reign  Nehemiah  was  active  is  Artaxer- 
xes  I,  464-424,  and  not  Artaxerxes  II,  404-358  b.  c. 

Document  I 

To  our  Lord  Bagohi  (Bagoas),  governor  of  Judea,  thy 
servants,  Jedoniah  and  his  companions,  the  priests  in  the 
fortress  of  Yeb  (Elephantine);  Greeting: 

May  our  Lord,  the  God  of  heaven,  grant  thee  peace  abun- 
dantly at  all  times,  and  give  thee  favor  before  King  Darius 
and  the  sons  of  the  royal  house  a  thousandfold  more  than 
now,  and  give  thee  long  life!  May  joy  and  health  be  thine 
at  all  times! 

Now,  thy  servants,  Jedoniah  and  his  companions,  speak 
thus:  In  the  month  of  Tammuz  (July-August),  in  the  14th 
year  of  King  Darius,  when  Arsam  (Arsames)  departed  and 
went  to  the  king,  the  priests  of  the  god  Khnub  in  the  for- 
tress of  Yeb  entered  a  conspiracy  with  Waidrang,  who  was 
the  governor  here,  as  follows:  "The  temple  of  the  god 
Yahu  in  the  fortress  of  Yeb  shall  be  removed."  Thereupon 
Waidrang  sent  letters  to  his  son  Nephayan,  who  was  com- 
mander of  the  fortress  Syene,  saying:  "The  temple  in  the 
fortress  Yeb  shall  be  destroyed."  Thereupon  Nephayan 
brought  Egyptians  together  with  other  soldiers.  They 
came  to  the  fortress  Yeb  with  their  .  .  .  They  entered  into 
that  temple  and  destroyed  it  to  the  ground,  and  broke  to 
pieces  the  pillars  of  stone  that  were  there.  They  destroyed 
also  the  five  gates,  built  of  hewn  stone,  which  were  in  the 
temple,  and  their  tops  .  .  .  and  bronze  hinges  in  marble 
slabs  and  the  roof,  made  wholly  of  cedar  wood  together  with 


THE    ELEPHANTINE    PAPYRI  151 

the  stucco  of  the  wall  and  other  things  that  were  there,  all 
this  they  burnt  with  fire.  And  the  bowls  of  gold  and  silver 
and  whatever  was  in  the  temple  they  took  and  appropriated 
to  themselves. 

And  since  (already  in)  the  days  of  the  kings  of  Egypt 
had  our  fathers  built  this  temple  in  the  fortress  of  Yeb. 
And  when  Cambyses  entered  Egypt  he  found  this  temple 
built,  and  while  the  temples  of  the  gods  of  Egypt  were  then 
all  overthrown,  no  one  injured  anything  in  this  temple. 

And  since  they  [Waidrang  and  the  priests  of  Khnub] 
have  done  this,  we  with  our  wives  and  children  have  put  on 
sackcloth  and  fasted  and  prayed  to  Yahu,  the  Lord  of 
heaven  who  gave  us  cognizance  of  Waidrang  [i.e.,  punished 
him].  The  chain  was  removed  from  his  feet,  and  all  the 
possessions  which  he  acquired  perished  and  all  the  men  who 
wished  ill  to  his  temple  were  slain,  and  we  saw  it  ourselves 
to  our  satisfaction. 

And  before  this,  at  the  time  when  this  evil  was  done  us, 
have  we  sent  a  letter  to  our  Lord  (Bagohi)  and  to  Jehohanan 
(Jonathan),  the  high  priest,  and  his  companions,  the  priests 
in  Jerusalem,  and  his  brother  Ostan,  that  is,  Anani  [Han- 
nani]  and  the  nobles  of  the  Jews,  but  they  sent  us  no  answer. 
Also  since  the  Tammuz  day  of  the  14th  year  of  King  Darius 
to  this  day,  we  wear  sackcloth  and  are  fasting.  Our  wives 
have  become  like  widows.  We  have  not  anointed  ourselves 
with  oil  nor  drunk  wine.  Neither  from  that  day  to  this 
day  of  the  17th  year  of  King  Darius  have  meal-offerings, 
frankincense,  or  burnt-offerings  been  offered  in  this  temple. 

Now  thy  servants,  Jedoniah,  and  his  companions,  and  the 
Jews,  all  the  citizens  of  Yeb,  speak  thus:  If  it  seem  good  to 
our  Lord,  mayest  thou  think  about  this  temple  to  rebuild  it, 
since  we  are  not  permitted  to  build  it,  and  look  upon  the 
recipients  of  thy  benefits  and  of  thy  mercy  here  in  Egypt. 
May  a  letter  be  sent  from  thee  to  them  concerning  the 
temple  of  Yahu  that  it  be  built  again  in  the  fortress  of  Yeb 
as  it  was  built  in  former  times.     And  we  will  offer  meat- 


152  OTHER    SEMITIC    SOURCES 

offerings,  and  frankincense,  and  burnt-offerings  upon  the 
altar  of  the  God  Yahu  in  thy  name.  And  we  will  pray  for 
thee  at  all  times,  we  and  our  wives  and  our  children  and  all 
the  Jews  who  are  here  when  this  will  be  done,  until  the 
temple  is  built.  And  thou  shalt  have  a  portion  before 
Yahu,  the  God  of  heaven,  from  everyone  who  offers  to  him 
burnt-offerings  and  sacrifices  in  value  equal  to  a  silver 
shekel  for  .  .  . 

And  concerning  the  gold  we  have  sent  a  message  and  made 
known.  We  have  also  all  of  us  written  concerning  these 
matters  in  a  letter  in  our  name  to  Delaiah  and  Shelemiah, 
the  sons  of  Sanballat,  the  governor  of  Samaria. 

Arsam  also  has  no  knowledge  of  all  that  has  been  done  to 
us. 

The  20th  of  Marheshwan  (Octobei^November),  in  the 
17th  year  of  King  Darius.^ 

Document  III 

Account  of  that  which  Bagohi  and  Delaiah  said  to  me. 
The  account  is  as  follows:  "Thou  shalt  speak  in  Egypt 
before  Arsames  concerning  the  altar  house  of  the  God  of 
heaven  which  had  been  built  in  the  fortress  Yeb  before  our 
time,  before  Cambyses,  which  Waidrang  that  .  .  .  has 
destroyed  in  the  14th  year  of  King  Darius.  To  rebuild  in 
its  place,  as  it  was  before,  and  meat-offerings  and  frankin- 
cense shall  be  offered  upon  that  altar  likewise  as  before  was 
used  to  be  done."  ^ 

The  Apocryphal  and  Pseudepigraphical  historical 
sources  for  the  history  of  the  Jews  are  so  accessible 
to  the  student  that  it  has  not  been  considered  neces- 
sary  to   reproduce   them   here.     They   are   of   great 

^  Sachau,  Aramdische  Papyrus  und  Ostraka,  Papyrus  1. 
2  Sachau,  op.  cit..  Papyrus  3. 


THE    ELEPHANTINE    PAPYRI  153 

importance  for  the  Persian,  Greek,  Maccabean,  and 
Roman  periods,  and  can  be  found  in  Kautzsch,  Die 
Apokryphen  und  Pseudepigraphen  des  Alien  Testa- 
ments. R.  H.  Charles  of  Oxford  is  about  to  publish 
a  book  containing  the  Apocryphal  and  Pseudepi- 
graphical  books  in  English  translation.  Historical 
references  in  Rabbinical  literature  are  not  of  sufficient 
independence  to  be  used  here,  though  the  general 
literature  is  very  valuable.  For  Jewish  coins,  bearing 
interesting  inscriptions,  see  Madden,  Coins  of  the  Jews, 


GREEK  AND   LATIN   SOURCES 


GREEK  AND  LATIN  SOURCES 

The  chief  sources  in  Greek  for  the  study  of  Jewish 
history  are:  Josephus,  Antiquities,  Books  XI-XVIII, 
and  XX;  Against  Apion,  Books  I-II;  Jewish  Wars, 
Books  I- VII;  Philo;  and  the  New  Testament.  These 
have  not  been  reproduced  here  because  they  are 
accessible  to  all  students.  There  are  a  good  many 
Greek  and  Latin  inscriptions  and  coins,  but  they  are 
not  important  enough  to  be  given  here,  especially  as 
they  are  to  be  found  in  convenient  form  in  Thomas 
Lewin,  Fasti  Sacri;  and  Madden,  Coins  of  the  Jews, 
The  Latin  sources  are  given  below  with  the  other 
Greek  sources. 

From  Cyrus  to  Pompey,  559-66  b.  c. 
The  Conquest  of  Asia  Minor  by  Cyrus 

However,  Croesus,  having  passed  the  river  with  the 
army,  came  to  a  place  called  Pteria  in  Cappadocia  —  now 
Pteria  is  the  strongest  place  of  the  whole  of  this  country, 
and  is  situated  over  against  Sinope,  a  city  on  the  Euxine  Sea. 
Here  he  encamped  and  ravaged  the  lands  of  the  Syrians; 
and  took  the  city  of  the  Pterians,  and  enslaved  the  inhabi- 
tants; he  also  took  all  the  neighboring  places,  and  ex- 
pelled the  inhabitants,  who  had  given  him  no  cause  for 
blame.  But  Cyrus,  having  assembled  his  own  army,  and 
having  taken  with  him  all  who  inhabited  the  intermediate 
country,  went  to  meet  Croesus.     [The  result  of  the  first 


158  GREEK    AND    LATIN    SOURCES 

battle    was    indecisive.     Cyrus,    however,    persevered    and 
defeated  Croesus  and  extended  his  rule  as  far  as  the  Aegean 

Sea].i 

Artaxerxes  III  (OcHus) 

The  capital  of  Judea  was  Jerusalem,  but  it  was  destroyed. 
Jericho  took  its  place.  This  also  ceased,  Artaxerxes  having 
subdued  it  in  battle.^ 

Ochus  son  of  Artaxerxes  making  an  expedition  into 
Egypt  took  a  certain  part  of  the  Jews  captive,  some  of  whom 
he  settled  in  Hyrcania  near  the  Caspian  Sea,  others  in 
Babylonia,  who  are  there  even  now  as  many  of  the  Greeks 
record.^ 

Ochus  destroyed  Sidon,  and  added  Egypt  to  his  empire.* 

Alexander  and  Andromachus 

During  the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great  the  Jews  were 
under  the  political  direction  of  Andromachus,  Greek  gover- 
nor of  the  province  of  Coele-Syria,  whose  residence  was  at 
Samaria.     While  Alexander  was  in  Egypt  the  Samaritans 

*  Herodotus  I,  76.  Herodotus  uses  the  term  "Syrians  in 
Palestine"  to  denote  the  Jews.  He  does  not  seem  to  know 
the  term  "Jews,"  cf.  II,  104.  For  the  reconstruction  of 
Jewish  history,  Herodotus,  especially  books  I  and  II,  is 
very  useful.  The  same  is  true  of  the  Persian  historian  Cte- 
sias,  a  contemporary  of  Herodotus. 

2  Solinus  XXX,  4.  Transl.  by  Harold  Holt.  Th.  Reinach 
in  Semitic  Studies  in  Memory  of  A.  Kohut,  however,  refers 
this  to  the  conquests  of  the  Sassanian  king  Artaxerxes  I. 

2  Syncellus  I,  486.  Trans,  by  Mr.  Holt.  Eusebius,  Chroni- 
corumy  II,  105,  places  this  event  in  the  sixth  year  of  Ochus. 
This  rebellion  was  instigated  by  Tachos  of  Egypt,  who 
about  362  invaded  Syria  and  stirred  up  the  Phoenicians 
against  the  Persians.  Compare  Josephus,  Ant.  XI,  7,  1, 
and  Judith;  also  Diodorus  Siculus,  XVI,  40-52. 

*  Eus.  Chron,  II,  108  (Sync,  p.  256,  A). 


FROM    CYRUS   TO    POMPEY,    559-66    B.C.     159 

murdered  their  governor,  for  which  they  were  severely 
punished. 

Alexander,  having  captured  Tyre,  invaded  Judea.  Being 
more  favorably  received  there,  he  offered  sacrijfices  to 
God,  and  accompanied  Jaddua,  the  high-priest,  to  the 
temple  with  great  honor.  Andromachus  being  dismissed 
from  his  office  —  him  the  Samaritans  afterwards  killed. 
When  Alexander  returned  from  Egypt  he  punished  them 
severely,  and  captured  their  city,  and  gave  it  to  the  Mace- 
donians in  the  fourth  year  of  his  reign.^ 

Whom  (Andromachus)  the  Samaritans  had  burned  alive. 
To  avenge  his  destruction,  he  (Alexander)  exerted  himself 
with  as  great  speed  as  possible,  and  when  he  arrived  the 
authors  of  so  great  a  crime  were  surrendered.  Then  for 
Andromachus  Memnon  was  substituted,  punishment  hav- 
ing been  inflicted  on  those  who  had  killed  a  governor.^ 

The  Attempt  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes  to  Hellenize 
THE  Jews 

After  the  Macedonian  monarchy  was  established,  King 
Antiochus,  having  formed  a  plan  to  abolish  their  (the  Jews') 
superstition,  and  introduce  the  manners  and  customs  of 
Greece,  was  prevented  by  a  war  with  the  Parthians  (for 
Arsaces  had  then  revolted)  from  reforming  this  execrable 
nation.  In  process  of  time,  when  the  Macedonians  were 
by  degrees  enfeebled,  when  the  Parthian  state  was  in  its 
infancy,  and  the  Romans  were  at  a  distance,  the  Jews 
seized  the  opportunity  to  erect  a  monarchy  of  their  own 
(cf.  1  Mace,  13)  .3 

1  Eus.  Chron.  II,  112  (Sync,  p.  261). 

2  Quintus  Curtius,  IV,  8.     Transl.  by  Mr.  Holt. 

^  Tacitus,  History,  V,  8.  For  the  peculiarity  of  the  char- 
acter of  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  see  Polybius,  XXVI,  10,  in 
Schurer,  Geschichte  des  Judischen  Volkes,  Bd.  I,  pp.  191- 
192. 


160  GREEK    AND    LATIN    SOURCES 


Alexander  Balas  is  Recognized  by  Rome 

Then  Herocleides  entered  the  Senate,  bringing  Laodice 
and  Alexander  with  him.  The  youthful  Alexander  first 
addressed  the  Senate,  and  begged  the  Romans  "to  remember 
their  friendship  and  alliance  with  his  father  Antiochus,  and 
if  possible  to  assist  him  to  recover  his  kingdom;  or  if  they 
could  not  do  that,  at  least,  to  give  him  leave  to  return  home, 
and  not  to  hinder  those  who  wished  to  assist  him  in  recover- 
ing his  ancestral  crown."  Heracleides  then  took  up  the  word 
and  after  delivering  a  lengthy  encomium  on  Antiochus  came 
to  the  same  point,  namely,  that  they  ought,  in  justice,  to 
grant  the  young  prince  and  Laodice  leave  to  return  and 
claim  their  own,  as  they  were  the  true-born  children  of 
Antiochus.  Sober-minded  people  were  not  all  attracted  by 
any  of  these  arguments.  They  understood  the  meaning 
of  this  theatrical  exhibition,  and  made  no  secret  of  their 
distaste  for  Heracleides.  But  the  majority  had  fallen  under 
the  spell  of  Heracleides'  cunning,  and  were  induced  to 
pass  the  following  decree:  "Alexander  and  Laodice,  chil- 
dren of  a  king,  our  friend  and  ally,  appeared  before  the 
Senate  and  stated  their  case;  and  the  Senate  gave  them 
authority  to  return  to  the  kingdom  of  their  forefathers; 
and  help,  in  accordance  with  their  request,  is  being  decreed 
to  them."  Seizing  on  this  pretext,  Heracleides  immediately 
began  hiring  mercenaries  and  calUng  on  some  men  of  high 
position  to  assist  him.  He  accordingly  went  to  Ephesus 
and  devoted  himself  to  the  preparations  for  his  attempt.* 

The  Siege  of  Jerusalem  by  Antiochus  Sidetes 

King  Antiochus  laid  siege  to  Jerusalem;  the  Jews  resisted 
until  all  the  best  had  perished,  then  they  were  constrained 
to  send  envoys  to  treat  for  peace.    The  greater  part  of  the 

1  Polybius,  Historiae,  XXXIII,  18.    Transl.  by  Mr.  Holt. 


FROM    CYRUS    TO    POMPEY,    559-66    B.C.     161 

friends  of  Antiochus  were  of  the  opinion  that  it  would  be 
necessary  to  seize  the  city  by  main  force  and  completely 
annihilate  the  Jewish  race;  for  alone  of  all  nations  they 
refused  to  associate  with  other  peoples  and  looked  upon 
all  as  enemies.  They  represented  to  him  that  even  the 
ancestors  of  the  Jews,  men  impious  and  hated  of  the  gods, 
had  been  chased  from  the  whole  of  Egypt.  Covered  with 
leprosy  and  disease,  they  had  been  collected  like  accursed 
beings  and  thrown  without  the  frontiers  in  order  to  purify 
the  country.  Then,  being  banished,  they  took  possession 
of  the  territory  of  Jerusalem,  having  formed  the  Jewish 
race,  and  having  perpetuated  among  themselves  a  hatred 
of  mankind.  That  is  why  they  have  instituted  quite 
special  laws,  e.g.,  never  to  sit  at  table  with  a  stranger,  and 
not  to  show  any  kindness  toward  them. 

The  friends  of  the  king  reminded  him  also  of  the  former 
aversion  of  his  ancestors  for  that  race.  Indeed,  Antiochus, 
surnamed  Epiphanes,  after  having  conquered  the  Jews, 
penetrated  into  the  sanctuary  of  their  god  —  an  inacces- 
sible sanctuary  where  the  high-priest  alone  might  enter. 
He  found  there  a  stone  statue  of  a  man  with  a  long  beard, 
mounted  on  an  ass,  holding  a  book  in  his  hands.  He 
thought  that  this  statue  represented  Moses  the  founder  of 
Jerusalem  and  organizer  of  the  Jewish  people;  he  who  had 
imposed  upon  them  laws  contrary  to  humanity  and  justice. 
Antiochus,  exasperated  by  this  hatred  against  other  peoples, 
set  himself  the  task  of  abolishing  the  Jewish  institutions. 
That  is  why,  before  the  statue  of  the  founder  and  on  the 
naked  altar  of  their  god,  he  sacrificed  an  enormous  sow, 
and  there  sprinkled  the  blood  of  the  beast;  then  having 
prepared  the  flesh,  with  the  fat  which  he  had  gathered  to- 
gether, he  gave  orders  to  smear  the  sacred  books  which  were 
filled  with  those  rules  contrary  to  hospitality;  he  caused 
the  lamp  to  be  extinguished,  said  to  be  eternal,  which 
burned  continually  in  the  temple,  and,  finally,  he  forced  the 
high-priest  and  other  Jews  to  eat  the  flesh  of  the  victim. 


162  GREEK    AND    LATIN    SOURCES 

It  was  by  these  words  that  the  friends  of  Antiochus 
actively  urged  him  completely  to  annihilate  the  Jewish 
people,  or,  at  least,  to  destroy  their  institutions  and  to 
force  them  to  change  their  manner  of  living.  But  the 
king,  full  of  magnanimity  and  forbearance,  contented  him- 
self with  taking  some  hostages,  and  acquitted  the  Jews  of 
the  accusations  brought  against  them,  after  having  exacted 
the  tribute  which  they  owed  him  and  having  destroyed  the 
walls  of  Jerusalem.^ 

While  Antiochus  (Sidetes)  was  besieging  Jerusalem,  the 
Jews  requested  of  him  a  seven  days'  truce  to  celebrate  their 
greatest  feast  (Tabernacles).  Not  only  did  he  grant  their 
request,  but  he  also  caused  bulls  with  gilded  horns,  quanti- 
ties of  aromatics  and  perfumes  to  be  prepared,  and  escorted 
a  convoy  even  to  the  gates  of  the  city.  After  having 
delivered  this  gift  to  the  Jewish  priests,  he  returned  to 
his  camp.  The  Jews  full  of  admiration  for  his  conduct 
capitulated  immediately  after  the  feast.^ 

POMPEIUS  TrOGUS  on  THE  JeWS 

How  Antiochus  (Sidetes)  after  having  killed  Hyrcanus, 
conquered  the  Jews.    Digression  upon  the  origin  of  the  Jews. 

(Antiochus  Sidetes)  also  conquered  the  Jews,  who  under 
his  father  Demetrius  had  regained  their  liberty  by  arms. 
Finally  the  power  of  this  nation  became  such  that  after  him 
it  would  submit  to  no  other  Macedonian  king,  and  that 
governing  itself,  it  would  by  continual  war  lay  waste  Syria. 
[Here  follows  an  account  of  the  origin  of  the  Jews,  connecting 
them  with  Damascus,  cf.  Nicolas  of  Damascus]. 

Xerxes,  king  of  the  Persians,  was  the  first  who  conquered 
the  Jews.  They  then  passed  with  the  Persians  themselves 
under  the  dominion  of  Alexander  the  Great,  and  for  a  long 
time  remained  subject  to  the  Macedonian  empire  as  subjects 

1  Diodorus,  XXXIV,  1. 

2  Plutarch,  Antiochus  (M  or  alia,  Didot,  I,  221). 


POMPEY  TO   JEWISH   WAR,  66   B.C. -66   A.D.     163 

of  the  kingdom  of  Syria.  Having  separated  themselves 
from  Demetrius,  they  sought  again  the  friendship  of  the 
Romans  and  obtained  from  them  their  Hberty  —  the  first 
of  all  oriental  peoples;  Rome  then  making  willing  conces- 
sions for  the  benefit  of  other  peoples.^ 

How  the  Jews  and  the  Arabians  [under  John  Hyrcanus, 
Alexander  Jannaeus,  and  Aretas  of  Arabia]  infested  Syria 
by  land  raids;   while  the  Cilicians  molested  them  by  sea.^ 

The  younger  brother  of  Demetrius  (II),  Antiochus,  pupil 
of  Sida,  became  master  of  Syria  in  the  year  four  of  the  CLX 
Olympiad  ^  He  reigned  nine  years  and  conquered  the 
Jews,  after  having  destroyed  the  city,  whose  walls  he  threw 
down,  and  killed  the  most  distinguished  citizens  in  the  third 
year  of  the  CLXII  Olympiad.* 

Alexander  Jannaeus,  104-78  b.  c. 

Judea  being  thus  openly  delivered  up  to  tyranny,  Alex- 
ander the  first  (Jannaeus)  changed  his  title  of  high-priest 
to  that  of  king  (cf.,  however,  Josephus,  Ant.,  XIII,  11,  1). 
He  had  two  sons,  Hyrcanus  and  Aristobulus,  who  were 
rivals  for  the  power.^ 

From  Pompey  to  the  Jewish  War,  66  b.  c.  -  66  a.  d. 
64  B.  c. 

Pompey  replied  to  Antiochus  [the  Asiatic],  who  demanded 
back  his  kingdom,  that  he  would  not  return  to  him  that 

*  Pompeius  Trogus  (after  Justinus),  Prologue,  XXXVI; 
Justinus,  XXXVI,  1-3. 

2  Pompeius  Trogus,  Prologue,  XXXIX. 

3  1  A.  D.  =  the  first  year  of  the  195th  Olympiad.  The 
Olympiad  consists  of  four  years,  and  begins  on  the  first 
full  moon  after  the  summer  solstice.  The  Olympiad  age 
began  in  776  b.  c.  See  Schurer,  op.  cit,  I,  pp.  172-174  on 
the  date  of  Demetrius  II. 

*  Porphyry,  Chronica,  Reges  Macedonum,  6,  18. 
^  Strabo,  Geography,  XVI,  40. 


164  GREEK    AND    LATIN    SOURCES 

which  he  did  not  know  how  to  defend,  for  fear  that  in  his 
hands  Syria  would  not  again  be  delivered  from  the  attacks 
of  the  Jews  and  Arabs.^ 


Aristobulus  and  Hyrcanus  before  Pompey,  63  b.  c. 

During  the  sojourn  of  Pompey  at  Damascus  in  Syria, 
Aristobulus  king  of  the  Jews  and  his  brother  Hyrcanus,  who 
were  disputing  among  themselves  about  the  throne,  came  to 
seek  him.  The  most  distinguished  of  the  Jews  to  the 
number  of  more  than  two  hundred  also  betook  themselves 
to  the  general.  They  told  him  that  the  ancestors  of  these 
pretenders  were  charged  with  the  administration  of  the 
temple,  having  sent  an  embassy  to  the  Senate,  and  having 
obtained  supremacy  over  the  free  and  autonomous  Jews; 
that  the  nation  should  not  be  governed  by  a  king,  but 
be  presided  over  by  a  high  priest;  that  Aristobulus  and 
Hyrcanus  reigned  in  opposition  to  the  national  laws,  and 
that  they  had  unjustly  oppressed  the  citizens;  that  it  was 
by  many  mercenaries,  by  violence,  by  many  and  impious 
murders,  that  they  held  the  throne. 

Pompey  deferred  his  judgment  concerning  the  two  rival 
brothers,  but  he  severely  blamed  Hyrcanus  because  of  his 
illegal  conduct  towards  the  Jews,  and  because  of  his  violence 
against  the  Romans,  adding  that  he  merited  a  very  great 
and  severe  punishment,  but  that  by  reason  of  the  traditional 
clemency  of  the  Romans  he  would  pardon  him,  with  the 
reservation  that  he  would  in  the  future  be  more  submissive.^ 

Fall  of  Jerusalem,  63  b.  c. 

(After  having  appeased  Aretas  king  of  the  Arabs),  Pompey 
marched  against  the  inhabitants  of  Syria-Palestine  who  had 
ravaged  Phoenicia.    They  had,  as  leaders,  two  brothers, 

^  Pompeius  Trogus,  Justinus,  XL,  2. 

*  Diodorus  XL,  2  {Excerpta  Vaticana,  p.  128). 


POMPEY    TO    JEWISH    WAR,  66    B.C. -66    A.D.      165 

Hyrcanus  and  Aristobulus,  who  were  competing  for  the 
high-priesthood  of  their  god,  a  title  which  they  always  used 
instead  of  that  of  king.  Their  rivalry  sowed  sedition  among 
the  towns. 

Hyrcanus,  whose  forces  were  insignificant,  immediately 
submitted  to  Pompey  without  resistance.  Aristobulus 
allowed  himself  to  be  shut  up  in  a  fortress  (cf.  Josephus, 
Ant.  XIV,  2,  3)  and  found  himself  constrained  to  sign  a 
capitulation.  Then,  when  in  spite  of  his  promises,  he 
delivered  up  neither  the  fortress  nor  its  treasures,  Pompey 
put  him  in  irons.  After  that  he  (Pompey)  easily  made 
himseK  master  of  the  country,  Jerusalem  alone  sustained 
a  siege  and  gave  him  some  trouble. 

The  city  proper,  where  the  partisans  of  Hyrcanus  received 
him  with  open  arms,  fell  into  his  hands  without  resistance; 
but  the  temple  itself,  occupied  by  the  adverse  party,  was 
taken  with  some  trouble  because  it  was  situated  on  an 
elevation  and  fortified  by  a  special  wall. 

If  the  enemy  had  defended  it  every  day  with  an  equal 
energy,  Pompey  would  never  have  been  able  to  take  it. 
But  fortunately  the  defenders  permitted  the  day  which 
they  call  Saturday  to  pass  without  work.  The  Romans 
profited  by  these  moments  of  relaxation  to  shatter  the  wall. 

Informed  indeed  of  this  fanaticism,  they  passed  the  rest 
of  the  time  without  much  activity,  and  awaited  the  periodic 
return  of  this  holiday  to  attack  the  rampart  with  all  their 
force. 

It  was  thus  that  the  temple  was  taken  on  Saturday  with- 
out any  resistance,  and  all  the  treasures  taken  as  pillage. 
The  kingdom  was  given  to  Hyrcanus,  and  Aristobulus  was 
led  into  captivity. 

Such  were  the  events  which  were  taking  place  in  Palestine.^ 

After  having  subdued  the  Arabs  of  Mount  Amanus 
through  Afranius,  Pompey  himself  descended  into  Syria, 

*  Dion  Cassius,  Roman  History ^  XXXVII,  15-16. 


166  GREEK    AND    LATIN    SOURCES 

As  this  country  had  no  legitimate  kings,  he  reduced  it  to  a 
province,  and  declared  it  the  property  of  the  Roman  people. 
He  also  conquered  Judea,  and  seized  the  king,  Aristobulus.^ 

But  it  is  said  that  Cneius  Pompey,  conqueror  of  Jerusalem, 
did  not  touch  anything  in  the  temple  [this  statement  is 
made  by  Cicero  to  sustain  his  exalted  opinion  of  Pompey]  .^ 

Cneius  Pompey  conquered  the  Jews  and  took  their  temple 
at  Jerusalem,  till  then  inviolable.^ 

From  there  (Antioch)  Pompey  passed  to  Judea,  seized 
Jerusalem,  the  capital  of  the  nation,  after  a  three  months' 
siege.  Twelve  thousand  Jews  perished,  the  rest  being 
received  on  condition  of  surrender.  At  the  triumph  of 
Pompey  (September,  61  b.  c),  among  the  kings  led  before 
his  chariot  was  Aristobulus,  king  of  the  Jews.'* 

Pompey  suddenly  came,  deposed  both  of  them,  and 
destroyed  their  fortifications,  commencing  with  Jerusalem, 
which  he  took  by  force.  The  place  was  built  on  a  rock  and 
surrounded  by  a  strong  wall,  abundantly  supplied  with 
water  inside,  while  the  environs  were  absolutely  dry.  There 
was  a  ditch  cut  in  a  solid  rock,  sixty  feet  deep,  and  two 
hundred  and  fifty  wide,  and  with  the  stones  taken  from 
the  excavation  the  whole  exterior  wall  of  the  temple  was 
built.  Pompey  took  possession  of  the  place,  choosing,  it  is 
said,  a  fast-day  for  the  attack,  when  the  Jews  abstained 
from  all  work;  he  profited  thereby  by  filhng  up  the  moat 
and  setting  up  ladders.  The  city  taken,  he  ordered  to 
destroy  all  the  fortifications;  and  they  tore  down,  as  far  as 
they  were  able,  the  retreats  of  the  tyrants  and  their  treasure 
places.  Two  of  these  treasuries,  Threx  and  Taurus,  com- 
mand the  entrance  of  the  valley  of  Jericho;  the  others  were 

1  Plutarch,  Pompeyy  39. 

2  Cicero,  Pro  Flacco,  XXVIII,  66. 
8  Livius,  Roman  History,  CII. 

^  Eutropius.  Breviariurriy  VI,  14  and  16.  Claudianus, 
EMtropium,  I,  220,  also  refers  to  the  triumph  of  Pompey  in 
Judea. 


POMPEY   TO    JEWISH    WAR,  66    B.C. -66   A.D.      167 

called  Alexandrium,  Hyrcanium,  Machaerous,  Lysias,  Phila- 
delphia, and  that  of  Scythopolis  in  Galilee.^ 

Pompey  was  the  first  Roman  who  subdued  the  Jews,  and 
by  right  of  conquest  entered  their  temple.  Thenceforward 
it  became  generally  known  that  the  habitation  was  empty, 
and  the  sanctuary  unoccupied,  no  representation  of  the 
deity  being  found  within  it.  The  walls  of  the  city  were 
leveled  to  the  ground,  the  temple  remained.^ 

The  last  of  the  Syrian  provinces  is  Palestine,  which  ex- 
tends over  a  vast  territory;  abundant  in  rich  and  culti- 
vated land.  It  possesses  some  remarkable  cities,  of  which 
none  yields  to  its  neighbor,  but  all  of  which  are  rivals  and 
are  placed  on  the  same  level:  Caesarea,  built  by  Herod  in 
honor  of  the  Emperor  Octavian;  Eleutheropolis;  Neapolis; 
besides  Ashkelon  and  Gaza  which  were  built  in  most  ancient 
times.  In  these  countries  one  does  not  find  any  navigable 
rivers,  but  in  many  places  there  gushes  forth  natural  warm 
water,  good  for  treating  many  diseases.  These  countries 
also  were  conquered  by  Pompey,  who  after  having  captured 
the  Jews  and  taken  Jerusalem,  constituted  them  a  province 
under  the  jurisdiction  of  a  governor.^ 

Finally,  about  noon,  (Pompey),  conducting  his  army, 
carried  the  Roman  standards  through  the  fragrant  groves, 
the  forests  of  frankincense  and  of  balsam. 

The  Jews  attempted  to  defend  themselves;  but  he  pene- 
trated even  into  that  city  and  discovered  the  great 
mystery  of  this  impious  race  —  an  ass  under  a  gold  vine. 
Two  brothers  were  disputing  for  the  throne,  and  took 
him  for  arbitrator.  He  gave  the  kingdom  to  Hyrcanus. 
Aristobulus,  who  renewed  his  claims,  was  put  into 
irons.^ 

^  Strabo,  Geography.  XVI,  40. 

2  Tacitus,  Historyy  V,  9. 

^  Marcellinus,  Rerum  gestarurriy  XIV,  8,  11-12. 

*  Florus,  Epitomaey  I,  40,  30. 


168  GREEK    AND    LATIN    SOURCES 

Celebration  of  Pompey's  Triumph,  61  b.  c. 

The  triumph  which  Pompey  celebrated  on  the  29th  of 
September  under  the  Consuls  M.  Pison  and  M.  Messala 
had  the  following  preamble:  "The  triumph  ...  of  Asia, 
of  Pontus  ...  of  Syria,  of  the  Scythians,  of  the  Jews,  of 
the  Albanians."  ^ 

Gabinius  and  Aristobulus,  5Q  b.  c. 

Gabinius,  leaving  in  Syria  his  son  Sisenna,  still  quite 
young,  with  a  handful  of  soldiers,  abandoned  to  the  brigands 
the  province  which  had  been  confided  to  his  care,  and  pro- 
ceeded in  person  to  Palestine  where  Aristobulus,  escaped 
from  Rome,  was  stirring  up  some  disorder.  He  took  him 
prisoner,  sent  him  to  Pompey  and  imposed  tribute  upon  the 
Jews,  after  which  he  invaded  Egypt.^ 

When  Gabinius  the  consul  was  about  to  return  to  Syria 
he  pressed  him  (Mark  Antony)  to  join  his  expedition. 
He  refused  to  take  the  part  of  a  private  gentleman,  but 
accepted  a  position  as  prefect  of  the  cavalry.  He  was  first 
sent  against  Aristobulus  who  had  caused  the  Jews  to  revolt. 
He  was  the  first  to  go  up  to  the  assault  of  the  most  impor- 
tant fortress,  Alexandrium,  and  chased  the  rebels  from  all 
their  places.  Finally,  he  went  to  battle,  and  at  the  head 
of  a  handful  of  men  defeated  the  enemy,  who  were  much 
more  numerous,  killed  almost  all  of  them  and  captured 
Aristobulus  and  his  son.^ 

Pompey  and  Caesar,  49-48  b.  c. 

Caesar  having  become  master  of  Rome  by  the  flight  of 
Pompey,  sent  Aristobulus  back  to  Palestine  to  embarrass 
Pompey.* 

^  Plinius,  Historia  naturalis,  VII,  26,  §  98. 

2  Dion  Cassius,  Roman  History,  XXXIX,  56,  5-6, 

3  Plutarch,  Life  of  Antony,  3. 

*  Dion  Cassius,  op.  cit.,  XLI,  18. 


POMPEY   TO   JEWISH   WAR,  66   B.C. -66   A.D.     169 

When  the  head  of  Pompey  was  presented  to  Julius  Caesar, 
he  was  not  able  to  endure  the  sight  of  it,  but  ordered  to  bury 
it,  and  commanded  to  erect  around  it  a  sacred  wall  a  short 
distance  from  the  city  (Alexandria),  which  he  called  the 
"sanctuary  of  Nemesis."  During  our  lifetime,  under  the 
Roman  Emperor  Trajan,  who  exterminated  the  Jews  of 
Egypt  (116  A.  D.),  the  sanctuary  was  demolished  by  the 
Jews  for  the  purpose  of  war.^ 

Cassius  in  Palestine,  43  b.  c. 

Cassius  having  taken  possession  of  Syria,  hasted  towards 
Judea,  on  hearing  that  the  troops  left  by  Caesar  in  Egypt 
were  proceeding  to  oppose  him.  These  troops  as  well  as 
the  Jews  joined  the  party  without  resistance.^ 

Pacorus  invades  Palestine,  41  b.  c. 

After  the  death  of  Saxa,  Pacorus  attacked  Syria  and 
entirely  conquered  it  except  Tyre.  Then  he  invaded  Pales- 
tine, deposed  Hyrcanus  who  governed  the  country  for  the 
Romans,  and  placed  his  brother  Aristobulus  in  his  stead,  to 
reign  in  conformity  with  the  customs  of  the  country.^ 

In  the  civil  war  which  afterward  shook  the  empire,  when 
the  eastern  provinces  fell  to  the  lot  of  Mark  Antony, 
Pacorus,  the  Parthian  king,  made  himself  master  of  Judea; 
but  was  in  a  short  time  after  put  to  death  by  Ventidius,  and 
his  forces  retired  beyond  the  Euphrates.'* 

Ventidius  and  Sosius,  and  the  Death  of  Antigonus, 
39-37  B.  c. 

P.  Ventidius,  finding  Syria  evacuated  by  the  Parthians, 
took  it  without  battle  with  the  exception  of  Arados,     Next, 

*  Appian  of  Alexandria,  De  hellis  civilihus,  II,  90. 

2  Dion  Cassius,  Roman  History,  XL VII,  28,  3. 

3  Dion  Cassius,  op.  cit,  XL VIII,  26. 

*  Tacitus,  History,  V,  9. 


170  GREEK    AND    LATIN    SOURCES 

he  occupied  Palestine  without  difficulty,  whose  king  Antigo- 
nus  he  alarmed.  After  this  he  collected  heavy  tribute 
from  all,  notably  Antigonus,  Antiochus,  and  Malchus  the 
Nabataean,  as  a  punishment  for  having  allied  with  Pacorus. 

C.  Sosius  (the  successor  of  Ventidius)  having  received  from 
Antigonus  the  government  of  Syria  and  of  Cilicia,  reduced 
the  Aradians  while  beset  and  tormented  by  hunger  and 
disease.  He  conquered  in  set  battle  Antigonus,  who  had 
massacred  the  Roman  garrison  left  with  him.  Being 
conquered,  he  fled  to  Jerusalem  where  he  was  forced  to 
capitulate  after  a  siege.  During  the  siege  the  Jews  did 
much  ill  to  the  Romans  —  for  that  nation  is  terrible  in  its 
anger  —  and  in  consequence  they  suffered  still  more.  The 
defenders  of  the  temple  wall  were  taken  first,  then  the  rest 
of  the  population;  this  time  the  day  was  Saturday.  Such 
was  the  fervor  of  their  piety  that  the  first  Jews,  made  prison- 
ers in  the  temple,  obtained  from  Sosius  by  their  supplica- 
tions, when  Saturday  had  come,  permission  to  enter  the 
sanctuary,  and  then  to  give  themselves  over  with  their 
compatriots  to  their  legal  rites.  Antony  entrusted  the 
governor  of  the  Jews  to  a  certain  Herod.  As  to  Antigonus, 
he  had  him  tied  to  a  stake  and  beat  him  with  rods  —  such 
treatment  as  no  other  king  had  ever  received  from  the 
Romans  —  then  put  him  to  death.^ 

Antony  dispatched  Fonteius  Capito  to  bring  Cleopatra  to 
him  to  Syria.  She  having  arrived  he  overwhelmed  her  with 
favors  and  gave  her  no  insignificant  gift  —  Phoenicia, 
Coele-Syria,  Cyprus,  a  large  part  of  Cihcia,  of  Judea,  the 
district  of  the  Nabataean  Arabs,  which  produces  the  balsam, 
all  the  part  bordering  on  the  Mediterranean  Sea.  Noth- 
ing irritated  the  Romans  so  much  as  these  presents.  At 
the  same  time,  also,  he  distributed  tetrarchies  to  a  number 
of  private   gentlemen,  and   took   away  from   others   their 

1  Dion  Cassius,  Roman  History,  XL VIII,  41;  XLIX,  22, 
3-6.     Compare  Tacitus,  Historyy  V,  9. 


POMPEY    TO    JEWISH    WAR,  66    B.C. -66    A.D.      171 

kingdoms.  Among  these  latter  was  Antigonus  the  Jew,  whom 
he  had  pubHcly  decapitated,  the  first  king  to  receive  such 
a  punishment.^ 

The  Jews  also  were  subdued  by  the  lieutenants  of  Antony 
(Herod  and  Sosius).^ 

Herod  joins  Caesar,  31  b.  c. 

The  royal  subjects  who  fought  in  the  army  of  Antony 
were  Bocchus,  Tarcondemus,  Archelaus,  etc.  These  were 
present  in  person;  others  sent  troops,  such  as,  Polemon  of 
Pontus,  Malchus  of  Arabia,  and  Herod  the  Jew. 

Canidius  came  himself  to  announce  to  Antony  the  de- 
struction of  the  army  at  Actium,  and  at  the  same  time  he 
learned  that  the  Jew  Herod  with  some  legions  and  cohorts 
had  gone  to  Caesar's  camp. 

Alexas  of  Laodicea  was  sent  after  Herod  by  Antony  in 
order  to  prevent  his  defection,  but  he  betrayed  the  confidence 
of  his  master  and  remained  with  Herod.  Then  relying  upon 
the  latter,  he  had  the  audacity  to  present  himself  to  Caesar. 
But  Herod's  protection  did  not  serve  him.  He  was  arrested 
and  led  in  irons  into  his  own  country,  where  by  the  order 
of  Caesar  he  was  put  to  death.^ 

20  B.  c. 

Augustus  gave  to  Herod  the  Tetrarchy  of  a  certain 
Zenodorus.^ 

The  Slaughter  of  the  Innocents,  6  b.  c. 

Having  heard  that  among  the  children  under  two  years 
of  age,  whom  Herod  king  of  the  Jews  in  Syria  had  put  to 

^  Plutarch,  Life  of  Antony,  36. 

2  Livius,  Periocha,  CXXVIH. 

3  Plutarch,  Life  of  Antony,  36. 

*  Dion  Cassius,  Roman  History,  LIV,  9,  3. 


172  GREEK    AND    LATIN    SOURCES 

death,   was  also  his  own  son,  Augustus  said:    "I  would 
rather  be  the  pig  of  Herod  than  his  son."  ^ 

Herod's  Sons,  4  b.  c. 

Shortly  after  these  events.  King  Herod  in  turn  died. 
The  nation  revolted  against  his  children  and  against  the 
Greeks.  The  insurgents  were  more  than  ten  thousand.  A 
battle  was  fought  and  the  Greeks  were  victorious.  Then 
Archelaus,  the  heir  to  the  throne,  finally  left  for  Rome  to 
reclaim  the  entire  estate  of  his  father,  and  invited  to  accom- 
pany him  Nicolas,  who  was  aheady  disposed  to  come  back  to 
his  country  for  he  was  sixty  years  old. 

Nicolas  then  started  on  his  voyage.  He  found  Rome 
full  of  accusers  of  Archelaus.  On  the  one  hand  his  youngest 
brother  disputed  the  throne  with  him,  while  on  the  other 
hand  all  his  relations  pursued  him  with  their  accusations, 
without,  however,  making  common  cause  with  his  brother. 
The  Greek  cities  which  were  under  the  dominion  of  Herod 
had  sent  ambassadors  to  reclaim  their  liberty  from  Caesar. 
Finally,  the  entire  Jewish  nation  reproached  him  for  the 
death  of  three  thousand  men  who  fell  in  battle,  and  demanded 
either  to  be  placed  under  the  direct  rule  of  Caesar,  or  other- 
wise under  that  of  his  young  brother. 

Face  to  face  with  all  these  proceedings,  Nicolas  com- 
menced by  pleading  for,  and  gaining  the  cause  of,  Archelaus 
against  his  relatives,  then  against  his  Jewish  subjects. 
Then,  as  to  the  proceedings  against  the  Greek  cities,  he  would 
not  undertake  that,  even  counseled  Archelaus  not  to 
oppose  their  request  for  liberty  —  the  rest  of  the  kingdom 
being  quite  sufficient  for  him.  Similarly  he  would  not 
argue  against  the  brother  of  Archelaus,  remembering  the 
friendship  which  he  had  had  with  their  common  father. 

Caesar  did  away  with  all  differences  by  giving  to  each 
son  a  portion  of  the  paternal  inheritance,  but  to  Archelaus, 

^  Macrobius,  Saiurnaliay  II,  4,  11. 


POMPEY   TO   JEWISH    WAR,  66   B.C. -66    A.D.     173 

a  haK.  He  heaped  honors  upon  Nicolas  and  named  Archelaus 
Ethnarch,  while  promising  him  very  soon  to  become  king  if 
he  showed  himself  worthy  of  it.  As  to  the  younger  brothers, 
they  were  obliged  to  be  satisfied  with  the  title  of  "Tetrarch.^ 
On  the  death  of  Herod,  a  man  named  Simon,  without 
waiting  for  the  authority  of  the  emperor,  seized  the  sover- 
eignty. He,  however,  was  punished  for  his  ambition  by 
Quinctilius  Varus,  the  governor  of  Syria;  and  the  nation, 
reduced  to  submission,  was  divided  into  three  portions 
between  the  sons  of  Herod.^ 

Archelaus  Exiled,  6  a.  d. 

Herod  (Archelaus)  of  Palestine,  having  been  accused  by 
his  brothers,  was  exiled  beyond  the  Alps,  and  his  part  of 
the  paternal  inheritance  was  annexed  to  the  Empire.^ 

Overtaxation  of  the  Jews,  15-26  a.  d. 

The  provinces  also  of  Syria  and  Judea,  oppressed  with 
impositions,  prayed  for  an  abatement  of  tribute.'* 

During  the  reign  of  Tiberius  (14-37)  things  remained  in 
a  state  of  tranquility.  Afterward  being  ordered  by  Caligula 
(37-41)  to  place  his  statue  in  the  temple,  the  Jews,  rather 
than  submit,  had  recourse  to  arms.  This  commotion  the 
death  of  Caligula  extinguished.^ 

Herod  the  Brother  of  Agrippa  Becomes  King 
OF  Chalcis,  41  A.  D. 

(In  the  reign  of  Claudius)  as  the  Jews  again  increased  in 
Rome,  and  as  it  had  been  dijQficult  to  exclude  them  from  the 

1  C.  Mtiller,  Frag.  hist,  graec.  III,  346-461  (Nicolas  of 
Damascus). 

2  Tacitus,  History,  V,  9. 

^  Dion  Cassius,  Roman  History,  LV,  27,  6. 
^  Tacitus,  Annalsy  II,  42  (In  the  time  of  Valerius  Gratus, 
15-26  A.  D.).  6  Tacitus,  History,  V,  9. 


174  GREEK    AND    LATIN    SOURCES 

city  without  provoking  trouble  from  the  multitude,  he  did 
not  drive  them  forth,  but  permitted  them  to  assemble  accord- 
ing to  their  national  customs. 

Agrippa  the  Palestinean,  who  had  aided  him  in  obtaining 
the  empire  —  for  he  was  then  at  Rome  —  obtained  for  him 
an  increase  of  territory  and  consular  honors.  His  brother 
Herod  received  the  rank  of  Praetor  and  a  certain  principal- 
ity (that  of  Chalcis,  Josephus,  Ant.,  XIX,  5,  1;  Wars,  H, 
11,  5).  Both  were  permitted  to  enter  the  Senate  and  to 
thank  the  emperor  in  the  Greek  language.^ 

JuDEA  Incorporated  into  Syria,  49  a.  d. 

Iturea  and  Judea,  at  the  death  of  their  kings  Sohemus 
and  Agrippa  (the  Younger),  were  incorporated  into  the 
province  of  Syria.^ 

Jews  Expelled  from  Rome,  52  a.  d. 

He  (Claudius)  chased  the  Jews  from  Rome,  who,  at  the 
instigation  of  Chrestus,  continually  excited  troubles.^ 

Felix,  52-59  (?)  a.  d. 

Among  those  released  the  one  whom  he  (Claudius)  loved 
most  was  Felix,  to  whom  he  gave  cohorts,  squadrons,  and 
the  government  of  Judea,  and  who  was  the  husband  of 
three  queens.^ 

The  Jewish  kings  being  either  dead  or  their  dominion 
reduced  to  narrow  limits,  Claudius  committed  the  province 
of  Judea  to  Roman  knights,  or  to  his  freedmen.  One  of 
these,  Antonius  Felix,  exercised  the  prerogatives  of  a  king 

1  Dion  Cassius,  Roman  History,  LX,  6,  and  8. 

2  Tacitus,  Annals,  XII,  23.  For  a  discussion  of  the  date, 
see  Lewin,  Fasti  Sacri,  Nos.  1727,  1720,  and  1533. 

3  Suetonius,  Divus  Claudius,  25. 
*  Suetonius,  Divus  Claudius,  28. 


POMPEY   TO   JEWISH    WAR,  66   B.C. -66    A.D.     175 

with  the  spirit  of  a  slave,  rioting  in  cruelty  and  licentious- 
ness. He  married  Drusilla,  the  granddaughter  of  Antony 
and  Cleopatra,  that  he  might  be  grandson-in-law  of  Mark 
Antony,  who  was  grandfather  of  Claudius.^ 

His  (Pallas)  brother,  surnamed  Felix,  for  some  time  gov- 
ernor of  Judea,  acted  not  with  the  same  moderation,  but 
relying  upon  such  powerful  protection,  supposed  he  might 
perpetrate  with  impunity  every  kind  of  villainy.  It  must 
be  admitted  that  the  Jews  had  exhibited  some  evidence  of 
insurrection  in  the  disturbance  which  broke  out,  since, 
after  they  were  apprised  of  his  assassination,  they  scarcely 
returned  to  obedience.  Their  fears  remained  lest  some  of  the 
succeeding  emperors  might  lay  the  same  injunctions  upon 
them.  Felix  too,  meanwhile,  by  applying  unreasonable 
remedies,  inflamed  the  disaffection,  emulated,  as  he  was, 
in  his  abandoned  courses,  by  Ventidius  Cumanus,  who  held 
part  of  the  province;  the  division  being  such  that  GaUlee 
was  subject  to  Cumanus,  and  Samaria  to  Felix  —  nations 
long  at  variance,  and  now,  from  contempt  of  their  rulers, 
less  than  ever  restraining  their  reciprocal  hate.  Accord- 
ingly, mutual  depredations  were  committed,  bands  of  rob- 
bers employed,  ambuscades  formed,  and  sometimes  battles 
fought,  and  the  spoils  and  booty  obtained  were  given  to 
their  governors,  who,  at  first,  rejoiced  over  it.  But  when 
the  mischief  increased,  they  interposed  their  troops,  and  their 
men  were  slain;  and,  but  for  the  aid  of  Quadratus,  ruler  of 
Syria,  the  whole  province  would  have  been  in  a  blaze  of 
war.  Nor,  in  the  proceedings  against  the  Jews,  who  had 
carried  their  violence  so  far  as  to  kill  our  soldiers,  was  there 
any  hesitation  about  punishing  them  capitally.  But  Cu- 
manus and  Felix  created  some  delay;  for  Claudius,  upon 
hearing  the  causes  of  the  revolt,  had  also  granted  power  to 
try  and  sentence  the  governors.  But  Quadratus,  taking 
Felix  upon  the  tribunal,  exhibited  him  among  the  judges, 

1  Tacitus,  History,  V,  9. 


176  GREEK    AND    LATIN    SOURCES 

to  awe  the  zeal  of  his  accusers,  so  that  Cumanus  alone  was 
doomed  to  punishment,  for  the  crimes  which  two  had  com- 
mitted.    Thus  the  tranquillity  of  the  province  was  restored.^ 

Gessius  Florus,  64-66  a.  d. 

The  patience,  however,  of  the  Jews  held  out  till  the  time 
of  Gessius  Florus,  the  procurator.  Under  him  a  war  broke 
out.  Cestius  Gallus,  the  governor  of  Syria,  endeavored  to 
crush  the  revolt.  He  fought  some  obstinate  battles,  most 
of  them  unsuccessfully.  ^ 

From  the  Jewish  War  to  Hadrian,  66-135  a.  d 
Nero  Appoints  Vespasian  to  take  Command  in  Judea, 

66  A.  D. 

The  war  against  the  Jews  had  been  committed  by  Nero 
to  Flavins  Vespasian,  at  the  head  of  three  legions.^ 

After  his  (Cestius  Gallus)  death,  which  happened  either  by 
design  or  from  disappointment  and  vexation,  Vespasian,  who 
was  sent  by  Nero,  succeeded  to  the  command.  By  his  char- 
acter, by  the  good  fortune  that  attended  his  arms,  and  with 
the  advantage  of  excellent  officers,  in  two  summer  campaigns 
(67  and  68  a.  d.)  he  overran  the  whole  country,  and  made 
himself  master  of  all  the  cities  except  Jerusalem.  The  fol- 
lowing year,  which  was  devoted  to  civil  war,  passed  tran- 
quilly as  far  as  the  Jews  were  concerned.* 

He  (Vespasian)  had  entertained  no  design,  nor  wish, 
against  the  interest  of  Galba.  He  sent  his  son  Titus  to 
Rome  (68  a.  d.),  as  will  be  seen  hereafter,  with  congratu- 
lations to  Galba,  and  assurances  of  fidelity .^ 

^  Tacitus,  Annalsy  XII,  54. 

2  Tacitus,  History,  V,  10. 

^  Tacitus,  History,  I,  10.     Cf.  Suetonius,  Vespasian,  4. 

*  Tacitus,  History,  V,  10. 

*  Tacitus,  History,  I,  10. 


JEWISH    WAR   TO    HADRIAN.  66-135    A.D.     177 


69  A.  D. 

While  Galba  still  possessed  the  sovereign  power,  Titus 
Vespasian,  by  order  of  his  father,  set  out  from  Judea,  for 
the  purpose,  as  he  stated,  of  paying  respect  to  the  emperor. 
...  In  the  city  of  Corinth  in  Achaia,  Titus  received  the 
news  of  the  death  of  Galba,  and  assurances  from  persons 
who  had  come  there  that  Vitellius  was  in  motion  at  the 
head  of  an  army.  ...  He  set  sail  from  Corinth,  and  after 
steering  along  the  coast  of  Achaia  and  Asia,  which  lay  to 
the  left,  he  directed  his  course  toward  Rhodes  and  Cyprus. 
From  those  islands  he  went  across  the  open  sea  to  the  coast 
of  Syria.^ 

Vespasian,  occupied  in  making  war  upon  the  Jews,  at  the 
news  of  the  insurrection  of  Vitellius  and  Otho,  deliberated 
as  to  what  he  should  do  ...  he  finally  decided  to  send 
Mucianus  to  Italy  against  Vitellius,  while  he  himself,  after 
having  cast  a  glance  over  the  affairs  of  Syria  and  having 
confided  to  other  commanders  the  continuation  of  the  war 
against  the  Jews,  proceeded  to  Egypt. 

Omens  and  dreams  had  for  some  time  promised  the  empire 
to  Vespasian  .  .  .  thus  it  was  that  a  Jew  named  Josephus, 
whom  he  had  formerly  led  away  in  irons,  cried  laughingly: 
"You  have  me  in  chains  now  but  in  a  year  from  this  time 
you,  having  become  emperor,  will  liberate  me."  ^ 

When  intelligence  was  brought  by  his  chosen  men  from 
Syria  and  Judea  that  the  East  had  sworn  allegiance  to  him 
(Vespasian),  it  would  hardly  be  believed  if  I  were  to  relate 
how  much  the  insolence  and  heartlessness  of  Vitellius  in- 
creased. .  .  .  Meanwhile  Vespasian  was  considering  the 
war,  and  revolving  the  means  of  conducting  it.  .  .  .  His 
troops  were  so  devoted  to  his  interest,  that,  when  he  set 
them  the  example  of  swearing  fidelity  to  Vitellius,  and  prayed 

^  Tacitus,  History,  II,  1-2. 

2  Dion  Cassius,  Epitome  of  Xiphilin,  LXV-LXVI. 


178  GREEK    AND    LATIN    SOURCES 

for  the  entire  prosperity  of  his  reign,  the  soldiers  heard  him 
in  profound  silence.  [Here  follows  the  address  of  Mucianus 
urging  Vespasian  to  proclaim  his  intention  of  becoming 
emperor.  The  whole  army  wished  to  see  Vespasian  emperor, 
and  "recounted  responses  of  seers  and  motions  of  the  stars" 
pointing  to  his  emperorship].  Mucianus  and  Vespasian, 
with  minds  thoroughly  made  up,  parted,  and  went,  the 
former  to  Antioch,  the  capital  of  Syria,  the  latter  to  Caesarea, 
the  capital  of  Judea.  The  first  public  step  towards  creat- 
ing Vespasian  emperor  of  Rome  was  taken  at  Alexandria 
in  Egypt.  [The  oath  was  then  taken  in  Judea  and  Syria 
by  the  whole  army].  Before  the  ides  of  July  (69  a.  d.),  the 
whole  province  of  Syria  had  taken  the  same  oath.  .  .  . 
Soon  after,  Agrippa,  receiving  private  expresses  from  the 
East,  summoning  him  from  Rome,  departed  before  Vitel- 
lius  had  any  intelligence,  and  by  quick  navigation  passed 
over  into  Asia.^ 

It  was  an  ancient  and  well  established  belief,  known  in 
all  the  Orient,  that  it  was  written  in  the  book  of  destiny 
that  the  empire  of  the  world  would  fall  about  this  time  to  a 
man  from  Judea.  This  oracle  which  appertained  to  a 
Roman  emperor,  as  the  event  soon  proved,  the  Jews  applied 
to  themselves.  They  revolted,  and  after  having  killed  their 
governor  (Gessius  Florus;  see  Josephus,  Wars,  II,  20,  1) 
they  put  to  flight  the  consular  legate  of  Syria  (Cestius  Gal- 
lus)  who  came  to  his  aid  and  brought  an  eagle  to  him.  To 
crush  this  movement  a  considerable  army  was  necessary  and 
an  active  leader,  to  whom  one  might  entrust  without  fear  an 
enterprise  of  this  importance.  Vespasian  was  chosen  from 
among  all  because  he  joined  to  tried  talents  an  obscurity  of 
race  and  name  which  left  nothing  to  fear.  Having  then 
reinforced  his  army  by  two  legions,  eight  wings,  and  ten 
cohorts,  and  having  taken  with  him,  among  his  lieutenants, 
his  oldest  son,  Vespasian,  since  his  arrival  in  his  province, 

1  Tacitus,  History,  II,  73-81. 


JEWISH    WAR    TO    HADRIAN,  66-135    A.D.      179 

knew  how  to  gain  the  esteem  of  the  neighboring  coun- 
tries by  estabhshing  miUtary  disciphne  and  by  combating 
with  much  ardor  everywhere,  till  at  the  siege  of  a  small 
fort  he  was  wounded  in  the  knee  with  a  stone,  and  received 
many  arrows  in  his  shield. 

When  near  Judea  he  consulted  the  oracle  of  the  god  of 
Carmel.  The  fates  responded  to  him  that  some  great  design 
which  he  meditated  and  revolved  in  his  mind  would  be  sure 
to  come  to  pass.  And  one  of  the  prisoners,  the  most  dis- 
tinguished, Josephus,  ceased  not  to  affirm  while  they  were 
putting  him  in  irons  that  he  would  soon  be  delivered  by  the 
same  Vespasian  after  he  had  become  emperor. 

Loaded  with  many  exploits  and  with  glory,  Vespasian  re- 
turned to  Rome,  celebrated  his  triumph  over  the  Jews  and 
added  eight  new  consulates  to  those  which  he  had  already 
made.^ 

In  the  eighth  month  of  the  reign  (of  Vitellius)  (Nov.- 
Dec,  69),  the  armies  of  Moesia,  Pannonia,  Syria,  and  Judea 
revolted  from  him.^ 

70  A.  D. 

Titus,  swelling  with  vast  anticipations,  proceeded  on  his 
voyage,  and  joined  his  father,  while  the  armies  and  prov- 
inces of  the  East  were  undecided,  and  contributed  immensely 
to  turn  the  scale.  Vespasian  had  almost  brought  the  Jew- 
ish war  to  a  conclusion.  Nothing  remained  but  the  siege 
of  Jerusalem;  an  arduous  enterprise,  not  so  much  on  account 
of  the  resources  of  the  enemy  to  endure  the  difficulties  of  a 
siege,  as  by  reason  of  the  hill,  and  their  stubborn  supersti- 
tion. Vespasian,  as  already  mentioned,  had  three  legions 
under  his  command,  all  inured  to  the  service.^ 

In  the  beginning  of  the  same  year,  Titus,  who  was  ap- 
pointed by  his  father  to  complete  the  subjugation  of  Judea, 

^  Suetonius,  Divus  Vespasianus,  28. 
2  Suetonius,  Divus  Vitellius^  15. 
•     3  Tacitus,  History y  II,  4. 


180  GREEK    AND    LATIN    SOURCES 

and  who,  when  both  were  no  higher  than  subjects,  had  gained 
a  reputation  for  miUtary  talents,  now  exercised  a  more 
extended  influence,  and  shone  with  augmented  lustre,  the 
provinces  and  armies  emulating  each  other  in  their  zeal  and 
attachment  to  him.  Titus,  on  his  part,  that  he  might  be 
thought  deserving  of  still  higher  distinctions  appeared  in 
all  the  splendor  of  external  embellishments,  and  showed 
himself  a  prompt  and  resolute  soldier.  .  .  .  He  succeeded 
to  the  command  of  three  legions  in  Judea,  the  fifth,  the 
tenth,  and  the  fifteenth,  who  had  long  served  under  Ves- 
pasian. To  these  he  added  the  tweKth  from  Syria,  and 
the  third  and  twenty-second  from  Alexandria.  He  was 
attended,  besides,  by  twenty  cohorts  of  the  allies,  and  eight 
squadrons  of  horse,  with  the  two  kings  Agrippa  and  Sohemus, 
and  auxiliaries  from  Antiochus.  He  had  also  a  band  of 
Arabs,  formidable  in  themselves,  and  harboring  toward 
the  Jews  the  bitter  animosity  usually  subsistent  between 
neighboring  nations.  .  .  .  with  this  force  Titus,  advan- 
cing into  the  enemy's  country  in  order  of  battle,  diligently  ex- 
ploring by  his  scouts  the  motions  of  the  enemy,  and  prepared 
for  action,  formed  a  camp  a  short  distance  from  Jerusalem.^ 
The  Jews  formed  in  order  of  battle  under  the  very  walls, 
determined,  if  successful,  to  push  forward,  while  prepared 
for  retreat  if  obliged  to  give  ground.  The  cavalry,  with  the 
light-armed  cohorts,  sent  against  them,  fought  with  doubt- 
ful success.  Soon  the  enemy  gave  way,  and  on  the  follow- 
ing days  engaged  in  frequent  skirmishes  before  the  gates, 
till  at  length,  after  a  series  of  losses,  they  were  forced  to 
retire  within  the  walls.  The  Romans  resolved  now  to  carry 
the  place  by  storm.  To  linger  before  it  till  famine  com- 
pelled a  surrender,  appeared  indeed  unworthy  of  them,  and 
the  soldiers  demanded  the  post  of  danger,  some  from  cour- 
age, many  from  ferocity  and  the  hope  of  gaining  rewards. 
.  .  .  But  Jerusalem,  standing  upon  an  eminence,  naturally 

^  Tacitus,  History,  V,  1. 


JEWISH    WAR   TO   HADRIAN,  66-135    A.D.     181 

difficult  of  approach,  was  rendered  still  more  impregnable 
by  redoubts  and  bulwarks  by  which  even  places  on  a  level 
plain  would  have  been  competently  fortified.  Two  hills 
that  rose  to  a  prodigious  height  were  inclosed  by  walls  con- 
structed so  as  in  some  places  to  project  in  angles,  in  others 
to  curve  inward.  In  consequence,  the  flanks  of  the  besiegers 
were  exposed  to  the  enemy's  weapons.  The  extremities  of 
the  rock  were  abrupt  and  craggy;  and  the  towers  were 
built  upon  the  mountain  sixty  feet  high,  in  the  low  ground 
a  hundred  and  twenty  feet.  These  works  presented  a 
spectacle  altogether  astonishing.  To  the  distant  eye  they 
seemed  to  be  of  equal  elevation.  Within  the  city  there 
were  other  fortifications  inclosing  the  palace  of  the  kings, 
and  the  tower  of  Antonia,  with  its  conspicuous  pinnacles  — 
so  called  by  Herod,  in  honor  of  Mark  Antony. 

The  temple  itself  was  in  t^e  nature  of  a  citadel,  inclosed 
in  walls  of  its  own,  and  more  elaborate  and  massy  than  the 
rest.  The  very  porticos  that  surrounded  it  were  a  capital 
defense.  A  perennial  spring  supplied  the  place  with  water. 
Subterraneous  caverns  were  dug  out  in  the  mountains,  and 
there  were  basins  and  tanks  as  reservoirs  of  rain-water. 
.  .  .  They  had  three  armies,  and  as  many  generals.  The 
outward  walls,  which  were  of  the  widest  extent,  were  de- 
fended by  Simon;  John,  otherwise  called  Bargioras  [an 
error,  for  John  was  son  of  Levi],  guarded  the  middle  pre- 
cinct; and  Eleazar  guarded  the  temple.  The  two  former 
were  strong  in  number  of  men,  the  latter  in  situation.  But 
battles,  plots,  and  burnings  occurred  among  themselves, 
and  a  large  quantity  of  grain  was  consumed  by  fire.  After 
a  short  time,  John,  sending  a  band  of  assassins,  under  color 
of  performing  a  sacrifice,  to  cut  off  Eleazar  and  his  party, 
gained  possession  of  the  temple.  From  that  time  the  citizens 
separated  into  two  factions;  and  in  this  state  they  continued 
till,  the  Romans  approaching,  an  enemy  without  pro- 
duced unity  within.  [Here  follows  an  account  of  the  prodi- 
gies which  occurred,  for  which    compare  Josephus,  WarSy 


182  GREEK    AND    LATIN    SOURCES 

VI,  5].  We  learn  that  the  number  of  the  besieged  of  every 
age,  male  and  female,  was  six  hundred  thousand  (of. 
Josephus,  Wars,  VI,  9).  All  who  were  capable  bore  arms, 
and  more  than  could  be  expected  out  of  that  number  had 
the  fortitude  to  do  so.  The  devotion  of  the  women  was 
equal  to  that  of  the  men;  and  if  they  must  needs  move  their 
seat,  and  quit  the  habitation  of  their  fathers,  they  dreaded 
to  live  more  than  to  die.  Such  was  the  city,  such  the  nation, 
against  which  Titus  Caesar  determined  to  act  by  means  of 
mounds  and  mantelets,  since  the  nature  of  the  locality  was 
adverse  to  assault  and  sudden  attacks.  The  legions  had 
each  of  their  several  duties  assigned  to  them,  and  there  was 
a  cessation  of  fighting  until  all  the  engines  and  appliances 
for  reducing  cities  invented  by  ancient  or  modern  genius, 
were  prepared.^ 

Titus,  charged  with  the  w§r  against  the  Jews,  tried  at 
first  to  bring  them  to  terms  with  words  and  promises.  Not 
being  able  to  persuade  them,  he  resumed  operations.  After 
some  indecisive  battles  he  defeated  them  and  began  the 
siege  of  Jerusalem. 

The  city  had  three  walls  including  that  of  the  temple. 
The  Romans  built  up  embankments  of  earth  against  the 
walls  and  pushed  forward  the  machines.  They  hindered  the 
escape  of  the  besieged,  and  with  shots  from  slings  and  arrows 
kept  back  the  defenders  who  mounted  upon  the  rampart. 
They  had  indeed  many  bowmen,  and  notable  auxiliaries 
sent  by  barbarian  kings.  The  Jews  also  had  drawn  many 
troops  from  all  the  countries  inhabited  by  their  co-religion- 
ists as  well  as  their  own  country,  and  not  only  from  the 
Roman  empire  but  also  from  countries  on  the  other  side  of 
the  Euphrates.  These  also  did  not  cease  to  hurl  arrows  and 
stones,  either  by  hand  or  with  the  aid  of  machines,  and 
with  all  the  more  effect  as  they  shot  from  above.  Occa- 
sionally they  made  sorties,  either  by  day  or  by  night,  burned 

1  Tacitus,  History,  V,  11-13. 


JEWISH    WAR    TO    HADRIAN,  66-135    A.D.     183 

the  machines,  killed  many  soldiers,  excavated  the  earth  in 
such  a  way  as  to  undermine  the  breast- work  of  attack,  carried 
off  the  battering  rams  with  ropes,  or  tore  them  away  with 
harpoons;  at  other  times  they  weakened  the  shock  with 
thick  timbers  collected  and  joined  with  irons,  which  they  put 
down  before  the  walls. 

But  that  which  caused  the  most  suffering  among  the 
Romans  was  the  lack  of  water.  It  was  necessary  to  bring 
the  water  from  a  distance  and  it  was  bad.  Moreover  the 
Jews  prolonged  their  resistance,  thanks  to  the  tunnels 
which  they  had  excavated  beneath  the  walls,  extending  from 
the  city  quite  a  distance  out  into  the  country.  They  made 
their  sorties  through  these,  fell  upon  the  parties  who  went 
to  get  water  and  massacred  them.  Titus  was  obliged  to 
close  up  all  these  tunnels.  During  this  work  there  were 
many  wounded  and  killed  on  both  sides.  Titus  himself 
received  a  blow  with  a  stone  on  his  left  shoulder,  and  in 
protecting  it  his  hand  also  was  hurt.  (See,  however, 
Josephus,  Wars,  V,  6,  2). 

Finally,  the  Romans  scaled  the  exterior  wall,  established 
their  camp  between  the  two,  and  commenced  their  attack 
on  the  interior  wall.  Here  again  the  war  was  unequal,  for 
all  the  Jews  sheltered  themselves  behind  this  wall,  defend- 
ing themselves  the  more  easily  as  they  were  the  more 
confined. 

Titus  made  a  second  proclamation  offering  them  pardon, 
but  the  enemy  was  all  the  more  obstinate.  The  Jews,  pris- 
oners or  deserters,  secretly  poisoned  the  water  of  the  Ro- 
mans, and  massacred  the  soldiers  whom  they  met  alone; 
and  Titus  decided  not  to  receive  any  more  of  them. 

In  the  midst  of  all  this  some  Romans,  discouraged  by  the 
long  siege  and  persuaded,  as  it  is  said,  that  the  city  was 
really  impregnable,  deserted.  The  Jews,  although  almost 
at  the  end  of  provisions,  nevertheless  welcomed  them  in 
order  to  show  that  they  also  received  deserters. 

Even  when  the  machines  had  made  a  gap  in  the  wall, 


184  GREEK    AND    LATIN    SOURCES 

the  defenders  would  not  surrender,  but  again  killed  a  large 
number  of  soldiers  who  mounted  to  the  assault.  They 
also  set  on  fire  some  neighboring  houses  in  order  to  hinder 
the  Roman  advance,  although  masters  of  the  wall.  By 
such  means  they  injured  the  wall,  and  set  fire  to  the  wall  of 
the  sacred  enclosure.  From  that  time  the  road  to  the  temple 
was  open  to  the  Romans.  Nevertheless  these,  being  held 
back  by  a  superstitious  fear,  did  not  at  once  betake  them- 
selves there;  they  only  penetrated  very  slowly,  being  forced 
by  Titus. 

The  Jews  resisted  with  more  zeal  than  ever.  It  was 
for  them  a  happiness  to  fall  near  the  temple  and  for  its 
defence.  The  people  were  ranged  in  the  vestibule,  the  offi- 
cers on  the  steps,  the  priests  in  the  sanctuary  itself.  Even 
though  they  were  few  in  number  and  opposed  to  a  large 
army,  they  did  not  yield  until  a  part  of  the  temple  was  on 
fire.  Then  some,  of  their  own  accord,  threw  themselves  upon 
the  swords  of  the  Romans,  others  cut  each  other's  throats, 
killed  themselves,  or  leaped  into  the  flames.  All  believed, 
especially  the  latter,  that  it  was  not  a  disaster,  but  a  victory, 
salvation,  happiness,  to  perish  with  the  temple.  Some 
prisoners,  however,  were  taken,  among  others  their  chief 
Bargioras,  the  only  one  who  was  put  to  death  after  the 
triumph. 

Thus  perished  Jerusalem,  even  on  Saturday,  which  the 
Jews  still  celebrate  more  than  any  other  day.  Henceforth 
a  tax  of  a  didrachm,  to  be  paid  annually  to  Jupiter  Capito- 
line,  was  placed  upon  all  those  who  continued  to  observe 
their  national  customs.  On  the  occasion  of  these  events 
Vespasian  and  Titus  both  assumed  the  title  of  Imperator 
but  neither  of  the  two  wished  that  of  Judaicus.  However, 
they  were  voted  all  honors  customary  after  such  a  victory, 
especially  triumphal  arches.^ 

The  Jews,  pressed  by  the  siege,  without  hope  of  peace  or  of 

*  Dion  Cassius,  Roman  History,  LXVI,  4-6. 


JEWISH    WAR    TO   HADRIAN,  66-135    A.D.     185 

capitulation,  were  finally  overcome  by  famine.  The  streets 
were  filled  with  corpses,  as  burial  was  neglected.  After 
having  attempted  all  the  abominations  in  the  way  of  food, 
they  did  not  even  abstain  from  human  flesh,  not  even  avoid- 
ing those  corpses  which  disease  had  rendered  unfit  for  food. 

It  is  said  that  Titus,  having  assembled  his  advisers,  dis- 
cussed the  question  of  destroying  the  temple  —  a  monu- 
ment of  very  great  workmanship.  Many  thought  it  was  not 
necessary  to  dismantle  a  sacred  edifice,  illustrious  among 
all  mortal  works.  In  sparing  it  there  would  be  seen  a  testi- 
mony of  Roman  moderation;  in  destroying  it  the  Roman 
name  would  be  marred  by  an  eternal  stain  of  cruelty.  Others 
on  the  contrary,  and  among  them  Titus,  actually  insisted 
upon  the  destruction  of  the  temple,  in  order  more  completely 
to  abolish  the  religion  of  the  Jews  and  of  the  Christians.^ 

Placed  after  his  quaestor  at  the  head  of  a  legion,  he  became 
master  of  Taricheas  (on  the  sea  of  Tiberias),  and  of  Gamala, 
strongly  fortified  places  of  Judea.  In  one  battle  his  horse 
was  killed  under  him,  and  he  leaped  on  that  of  a  soldier  who 
had  just  fallen  dead  at  his  side  in  the  fight. 

Left  in  Judea  to  achieve  its  submission,  at  the  end  of  the 
siege  of  Jerusalem,  he  killed  with  twelve  arrows  twelve  de- 
fenders of  the  city  of  which  he  became  master  on  the  anni- 
versary of  the  birth  of  his  daughter.  The  joy  and  affection 
of  the  soldiers  were  so  intense  that  in  their  acclamations  they 
saluted  him  with  the  name  of  "Emperor."  ^ 

At  the  time  when  Titus  had  taken  Jerusalem,  and  all 
was  full  of  corpses,  and  the  neighboring  nations  were  bring- 
ing him  crowns,  Titus  declared  himseff  unworthy  of  such 
honors,  for  this  exploit  was  not  his  work.  He  had  done 
nothing  but  lend  his  arm  to  the  manifest  anger  of  the  deity. 
Apollonius  praised  this  modesty,  and  wrote  him  thus: 
"Apollonius   to   Titus,    Roman   General,    greetings:    since 

^  Sulpicius  Severus,  Chron.y  II,  30. 
2  Suetonius,  Divus  Titus,  4-5. 


186  GREEK    AND    LATIN    SOURCES 

you  are  not  willing  that  one  proclaim  your  glory  for  the 
exploits  of  war,  and  the  blood  of  the  enemy  which  you  have 
spilled,  I  bestow  upon  you  the  crown  of  modesty,  for  I  see 
that  you  know  what  deeds  merit  that  crown.  Adieu." 
Titus,  much  pleased  with  this  letter,  replied:  "I  thank  you 
in  my  name  and  in  the  name  of  my  father,  and  I  shall  re- 
member your  words.  I  have  conquered  Jerusalem,  you 
have  conquered  me."  ^ 

Under  the  prince  (Vespasian)  the  Jews  were  incorporated 
into  the  Roman  empire  along  with  Jerusalem  the  most  illus- 
trious city  of  Palestine.^ 

Domitian,  mounted  on  a  white  horse,  accompanied  the 
triumph  over  the  Jews  which  his  father  and  his  brother 
celebrated.^ 

In  the  Reign  of  Domitian 

The  same  year  (95  a.  d.)  Domitian  put  to  death  many 
persons — among  others  the  consul  Flavins  Clemens  although 
he  was  his  cousin  —  and  had  married  one  of  his  relatives 
Flavia  Domitilla.  The  two  were  accused  of  atheism  (Euse- 
bius.  Hist  eccL,  III,  18,  4-5),  an  accusation  which  also  con- 
demned many  others,  convicted  of  allowing  themselves  to 
be  converted  to  Jewish  customs.  Some  were  put  to  death, 
others  were  punished  by  confiscation.  As  to  Domitilla,  she 
was  only  exiled  to  Pandataria.^ 

Appian  said  at  the  end  of  his  book  XXIV:  "During  the 
war  of  Egypt,  as  I  fled  before  the  Jews,  and  crossed  Petra 
in  order  to  gain  a  canal  (an  inlet  of  the  Nile),  where  a  barge 
was  waiting  to  take  me  to  Pelusium,  I  travelled  by  night, 
having  for  guide  an  Arab."  (The  travellers  lost  their  way 
and  found  themselves  all  at  once  on  the  shore  of  another 
canal  or  arm  of  the  Nile).     "While  I  was  in  this  predica- 

1  Philostratus,  Vita  ApolL,  VI,  29. 
^  Eutropius,  Breviarium,  VII,  19. 
^  Suetonius,  Domitianus,  2. 
■*  Dion  Cassius,  Epitome,  LXVII,  14. 


JEWISH    WAR    TO    HADRIAN,  66-135    A.D.     187 

ment  I  suddenly  found  myself  on  the  shore  of  another  canal, 
the  one  nearest  to  Pelusium,  and  I  perceived  a  trireme 
getting  ready  for  this  city.  I  got  up  there  and  was  saved, 
while  the  skiff  that  awaited  me  at  the  other  inlet  fell  into  the 
hands  of  the  Jews."  ^ 

Nerva,  96-98  A.  D. 

Nerva  dismissed  people  accused  of  impiety  and  recalled 
the  exiles.  He  no  longer  permitted  anyone  to  suffer  accu- 
sations of  impiety,  or  of  Judaism  as  a  crime.^ 

In  the  Reign  of  Trajan 

During  that  time  (115  A.  d.,  cf.  Eusebius,  Hist.  eccL, 
IV,  2),  the  Jews  of  Cyrene,  having  chosen  as  their  leader 
a  certain  Andreas  [Eusebius  says  Louhouas],  massacred 
the  Romans  and  Greeks.  They  ate  the  flesh  of  their  vic- 
tims, making  girdles  of  their  entrails,  dyeing  themselves 
with  their  blood,  and  dressing  themselves  with  their  skins. 
They  often  also  sawed  the  corpses  in  two;  they  either  cast 
others  to  wild  animals,  or  forced  them  to  give  themselves 
up  to  fight  with  gladiators.  They  thus  destroyed  in  all 
220,000  individuals.  They  began  the  same  atrocities  in 
Egypt,  and  at  Cyprus  under  the  leadership  of  a  certain 
Artemion.  There  240,000  men  perished  (Eusebius,  Chron., 
II,  164).  For  this  reason  no  Jew  is  permitted  to  approach 
this  island;  but  if  he  is  tempted  to  do  so  he  is  put  to  death. 
The  Jews  were  conquered  by  different  generals,  notably  by 
Lucius  (Quietus,  see  Mischna  SotUy  IX,  14),  who  was  sent  by 
Trajan.^ 

Hadrian,  117-138  a.  d. 

At  his  accession  he  (Hadrian)  set  about  to  establish  peace 
in  the  world.     The  nations  conquered  by  Trajan  had  re- 

^  Appian  of  Alexandria,  Arabicus  Liber  (Muller,  Frag, 
hist,  graecy  V.). 

2  Dion  Cassius,  Epitomey  LXVIII,  1,  2. 

3  Dion  Cassius,  Epitome,  LXVIII,  32. 


188  GREEK    AND    LATIN    SOURCES 

volted,  Egypt  was  torn  by  seditions,  Libya  and  Palestine 
gave  vent  to  their  spirit  of  rebellion.^ 

Finally  Hadrian  went  to  Egypt  (130  a.  d.),  passing  Judea 
on  the  way,  offered  libations  to  Pompey  and  restored  his 
tomb,  which  had  been  destroyed  (during  the  insurrection 
under  Trajan). 

When  Hadrian  founded  at  Jerusalem  a  new  city  in  the 
place  of  the  one  which  had  been  destroyed,  giving  it  the 
name  of  Aelia  Capitolina,  and  put  upon  the  site  of 
the  temple  of  the  god  another  temple  dedicated  to  Jupiter, 
it  resulted  in  an  important  and  prolonged  war.  The  Jews, 
although  indignant  to  see  men  of  another  race  establish 
themselves  in  their  city,  and  strange  religions  established, 
remained  tranquil  during  the  sojourn  of  Hadrian  in  Egypt 
and  his  return  to  Syria.  They  contented  themselves  with 
purposely  making  bad  armor  when  they  were  ordered  to 
make  armor.  Finally  it  was  refused,  and  they  were  able  to 
use  it  themselves.  Hadrian  once  at  a  distance,  they  openly 
revolted. 

They  did  not  dare  to  fight  the  Romans  in  fixed  battle, 
but  they  took  possession  of  the  best  positions  in  the  country 
and  fortified  them  with  tunnels  and  walls,  in  order  if 
necessary  to  take  refuge  there  and  to  insure  secret  com- 
munications under  ground.  They  made  openings  above 
these  subterranean  roads  to  allow  the  light  and  air  to 
come  in. 

At  first  the  Romans  paid  no  attention  to  these  intrigues; 
but  when  all  Judea  was  in  commotion,  and  when  it  was 
seen  that  the  Jews  from  all  parts  of  the  world  were  uneasy, 
congregating,  and  making  much  trouble  for  the  Romans 
both  openly  and  in  secret;  that  many  from  other  nations, 
drawn  by  the  hope  of  gain,  made  common  cause  with  them; 
that  the  whole  earth,  so  to  speak,  was  on  fire;  then  Hadrian 
sent  against  them  his  best  generals,  having  for  leader  JuHus 

^  Spartianus,  Hadrianus,  5. 


JEWISH    WAR   TO    HADRIAN,  66-135    A.D.     189 

Severus,  whom  he  called  from  the  government  of  Brittany 
to  take  charge  of  the  war  against  the  Jews. 

He  did  not  even  dare  to  attack  them  openly  on  account 
of  their  number  and  their  desperate  resistance;  he  took 
them  separately,  thanks  to  the  number  of  his  soldiers  and 
lieutenants,  cut  short  their  provisions,  surrounded  them,  and 
was  able  thus  slowly  but  surely  to  exhaust  their  strength, 
use  them  up  and  exterminate  them.  Only  a  very  small 
number  escaped. 

Fifty  of  their  best  fortresses,  985  of  their  small  towns, 
the  most  important  of  which  were  destroyed;  580,000  men 
perished  in  the  sorties  and  combats.  And  as  for  those  who 
died  from  hunger,  sickness,  and  fire,  the  number  is  incalcu- 
lable. All  of  Judea,  however  little  it  was,  became  a  desert, 
as  was  predicted  before  the  war;  for  the  tomb  of  Solomon 
which  they  greatly  venerated  was  even  crumbling  to  pieces. 
Wolves  and  hyenas  in  large  numbers  entered  howHng  into 
their  cities. 

However,  the  Romans  themselves  lost  a  great  many  in 
this  war.  Also  Hadrian,  writing  to  the  Senate,  did  not  make 
use  of  the  usual  preface  of  the  emperors:  "If  you  and  your 
children  are  well  so  much  the  better,  as  for  me  and  my 
troops  we  are  well."     Thus  ended  the  war  of  Judea.^ 

At  that  time  (when  Hadrian  was  in  Asia,  132  a.  d.)  the 
Jews  also  took  up  arms  because  they  were  not  allowed  to 
practice  circumcision.^ 

In  the  reign  of  Hadrian  many  soldiers  were  killed  by  the 
Jews  and  many  by  the  Britons.^ 

It  was  thus  that  the  Romans  took  possession,  without 
opposition,  of  Cilicia,  Syria,  Phoenicia,  Palestine,  and  all 
the  other  countries  of  Syria,  whatever  their  names,  from 
the  Euphrates  even  to  Egypt  and  the  sea.    One  nation  alone 

*  Dion  Cassius,  Epitome,  LXIX,  11-15. 

2  Spartianus,  Hadrianus,  14. 

'  Cornelius  Fronto,  De  hello  Parthico, 


190  GREEK    AND    LATIN    SOURCES 

still  resisted,  that  of  the  Jews.  Pompey  conquered  them 
by  force,  sent  their  king  Aristobulus  to  Rome  and  destroyed 
Jerusalem,  their  largest  and  holiest  city.  This  city  had 
already  been  destroyed  by  Ptolemy  (Lagos),  the  first  king  of 
Egypt.  Reconstructed,  it  was  again  destroyed  by  Vespasian, 
and  finally  in  my  time  by  Hadrian.  That  is  the  reason  the 
Jews  all  pay  a  much  larger  capitation  than  the  other  sub- 
jects of  the  empire.  The  Syrians  and  the  Cilicians  pay 
equally  an  annual  tax,  equal  to  a  hundredth  part  of  their 
capital  wealth.^ 

^  Appian  of  Alexandria,  Syriacus  Liber,  50. 


GREEK  AND  LATIN  SECTION 


ABILENE 

Damascus  c 


Zarcplia 
Sarepta'/ 


^ 
^ 
^ 


^ 


^ 


^ 


^ 


^ 


^v 


Sarcpt' 


DovH  „ 

CaosarJJi^S.n.ton's  oMegiddo^^^^^^ 

Taanach  o  ^  Bethsean 

SAMARIA    Scvthopoiis 
Belhuliao  (i.      pdia 

T^  oGeba 

o  Samaria 

Shechem 
/       PAntipatris         Arehela 


Thamnatha 
Co  Ljdda    ''     Gilgal 
■    "      J      U      D' 
ezer  n  Modein 

"  o 

Gazera 


Alexandriura 
Shiloho 

Phasaelis° 


E     A 

Bethel  oEphraim 

O  I^J' 

■r     ^  •      rk»,,  o  Bethhoron         Jcriclio\T 

Jamn.ao>-kr-     oAjalon       O^„,ttoth° 

A.i   I  'A'/     >/  Emmaus  MhpSh  °^'°''  , 

Aslidoai'o  *^     oJeruBalcm 

(Aiotus)/  Oj,  ^. 

Ash.n,on#.  Gath.o     BetMe.e.o     ^^*"- 

AllthecioiC    E'eutheropoliB       BethzachwiaB     </l"odi 

GaiCt5"'"^""'Adullam°         o  OTe.oa 

Mareshaho  '***''J,'"    °Halhul 

Hebron 


I     D     U     M 

Beersheba  o 


E    A 

o  Malatha 


APPENDICES 


APPENDIX  I 

Tabular  View  of  Hebrew  and  Jewish  History 
IN  THE  Light  of  Oriental  History 

I 

From  the  Earliest  Times  to  the  Exodus 

2900^  Snefru  of  the  third  Egyptian  dynasty  sent  a 
fleet  to  Lebanon.  This  is  the  earliest  known 
'  sea-voyage,  and  the  first  expedition  into 
Syria  known  to  history. 

2800  Lugal-zag-gi-si,  king  of  Umma,  extended  his 
sway  as  far  as  the  Mediterranean. 

2740  Sahure  of  the  fifth  Egyptian  dynasty  made  a 
successful  naval  expedition  to  Phoenicia. 

2650  Sargon,  king  of  Akkad,  and  his  son  Naram-Sin 
extended  their  empire  as  far  as  the  Medi- 
terranean. 

2580  Pepi  I  of  the  sixth  Egyptian  dynasty  made 
the  earliest  expedition  into  Palestine  known 
to  history. 

2560    Pepi  II ,  Commerce  was  carried  on  with  Lebanon. 

2000  Khammurabi,  sixth  king  of  the  first  Babylonian 
dynasty,  was  a  contemporary  of  Abraham, 
Palestine  was  greatly  under  the  influence  of 
Babylonia. 

1980    Tale  of  Sinuhe  an  exile  in  Palestine. 

1  Many  of  the  dates,   especially  the  earlier  ones,   are 
approximate. 


194  APPENDICES 

1890  Ammi-ditana,  ninth  king  of  the  first  Babylonian 
dynasty,  claimed  suzerainty  over  the  Amurru. 

1860    Expedition  of  Sesostris  III  of  the  twelfth  Egyp- 
tian dynasty  into  Palestine. 
Monuments  of  Egyptian  officials  found  in  Gezer. 

1815  Entrance  of  the  Hittites  into  the  Tigris- 
Euphrates  district. 

1750    Advent  of  Kassites  into  Babylonia. 
/      1675    Hyhsos  conquer  Egypt. 
^'/>:^650    Ja£oh  and  his  family  went  to  Egypt. 

1600     Shamshi-Adad  III  set  up  a  stela  in  Lebanon. 

1575  Expulsion  of  Hyksos  by  Ahmose  I  of  the  eigh- 
teenth dynasty. 

1530  Thutmose  I  conquered  Syria  and  extended  his 
power  to  the  Euphrates. 

1500    Assyria  begins  to  free  itself  from  Babylonia. 

1479  Thutmose  III  made  seventeen  campaigns  into 
Asia  (1479-1459).  He  extended  his  empire 
as  far  as  the  Euphrates. 
/-  1400  The  Tell-el-Amarna  Letters  tell  of  the  invasion 
of  Canaan  by  the  Khabiri  (Hebrews),  in  the 
reign  of  Amenhotep  III. 

1375  Amenhotep  IV  (Ikhnaton)  neglects  his  Asiatic 
dominions,  and  the  Hittites  seize  Syria. 
Amorite  kingdom  established  on  the  Orontes. 

1300  Shalmaneser  I  of  Assyria  freed  himself  from 
Babylonian  control  and  claimed  supremacy 
in  Western  Asia. 

1295  Seti  I  of  the  nineteenth  dynasty  recovered 
Palestine. 

1288    Rameses  II  at  war  with  the  Hittites.     Lasted 
till  1271. 
Hebrew  oppression  in  Egypt. 


APPENDICES  195 

1225  Merneptah,  ''Pharaoh  of  the  Exodus.''  In  his 
third  year  he  made  a  campaign  into  Asia. 
** Israel*'  mentioned  among  the  conquered. 


n 

From  the  Exodus  to  the  Babylonian 
Captivity 

1190    Philistines  enter  Canaan. 

1185  Hebrews  enter  Canaan.  The  weak  Ramessids 
lost  Palestine  to  Egypt,  and  in  the  reign 
of  Rameses  IX,  the  report  of  Wenamon 
shows  the  independence  of  Syria  and  Pales- 
tine. The  Hebrews  now  established  their 
kingdom  —  Assyria  and  Egypt  being  busy 
at  home. 
1100  Tiglath-Pileser  extended  his  influence  as  far  as 
the  Mediterranean.  Received  tribute  from 
Egypt. 

937  Division  of  the  Hebrew  Kingdom  at  death  of 
Solomon. 

926  Sheshonk  I  of  the  twenty-second  Egyptian 
dynasty  captured  Jerusalem. 

924  Rise  of  Damascus.  Development  of  Syria  and 
Palestine. 

880  General  Assyrian  supremacy  in  Syria  and  Pales- 
tine under  Assur-nazir-pal  II. 

854  Shalmaneser  III  was  victorious  over  the  West 
at  the  battle  of  Karkar  at  which  Egypt  was 
probably  represented.  Mesha  was  now  king 
of  Moab. 


196  APPENDICES 

842    Jehu  paid  tribute  to  Shalmaneser  III,  at  the 

beginning  of  his  reign. 
763     On  the  15th  of  June,  763,  an  eclipse  oj  the  sun 

took  place,  which  is  probably  referred  to  in 

Amos  8:  9. 
738    Menahem  paid  tribute  to  Tiglath-Pileser  IV. 
734     Tiglath-Pileser  IV  defeated  the  Philistines, 
732     Tiglath-Pileser  IV  took  Damascus. 
728     Tiglath-Pileser  IV  became  king  of  Babylonia. 
722    Sargon  II,  king  of  Assyria,  captured  Samaria. 
721     Merodach-Baladan  became  king  of  Babylonia. 
715     Egypt  paid  tribute  to  Sargon  11, 
710     Shabaka  of  the  twenty -fifth  Egyptian  dynasty 

incites  Syria  and  Palestine  to  revolt  against 

Sargon. 
701     Sennacherib   of   Assyria  appears  in  the  West, 

defeated  the  Egyptians  under  Taharka,  and 

besieged  Jerusalem  under  Hezekiah. 
680     Manasseh  and  many  other  western  princes  pay 

tribute  to  Esarhaddon  of  Assyria. 
670     Esarhaddon  conquered  the  Delta  and  made  it  an 

Assyrian  province. 
661     Ashurbanipal  took  Thebes.     In  647  he  became 

king  of  Babylon. 
609    Necho  of  the  twenty-sixth  dynasty  defeated  the 

Philistines. 
608    Necho  defeats  Josiah  at  Megiddo.     Judah  then 

became  a  vassal  state  of  Egypt. 
606    Nineveh,  the  capital  of  Assyria,  taken  by  the 

Babylonians. 
605     Nebuchadrezzar  met  Necho  at  Carchemish  and 

defeated  him.     Palestine  and  Syria  become 

Babylonian  dependencies. 


APPENDICES  197 

597    Nebuchadrezzar  took  Jehoiachin  into  captivity. 

Many  Jews  deported  to  Babylonia.     Zedekiah 

placed  on  the  Judean  throne. 
586    Jerusalem  was  destroyed.   Apries  (Hophra)  tried 

to  aid  Jerusalem  but  failed. 


Ill 

From  the  Babylonian  Captivity  to  the 
Uprising  of  Bar-Cochba 

561  Amel-Marduk  (Evil-Merodach)  liberated  Jehoia- 
chin. 

550  Cyrus  the  Persian  defeated  the  Medes  under 
Astyages.  Medo-Persian  empire  founded  by 
Cyrus. 

538     Cyrus  captured  Babylon,    He  liberated  the  Jews. 

5^5  Cambyses  the  Persian  conquered  Egypt.  Egypt 
became  a  province  of  the  Persian  empire. 

520     Temple  in  Jerusalem  begun  under  Zerubbabel. 

516    Temple  finished. 

490    Persians  defeated  by  the  Greeks  at  Marathon, 

480    Xerxes  defeated  by  the  Greeks  at  Salamis, 

458  Return  of  Jews  under  Ezra,  in  reign  of  Arta- 
xerxes  I, 

455  Nehemiah  rebuilds  the  Walls  of  Jerusalem.  Sep- 
aration of  Jews  and  Samaritans. 

410  Destruction  of  the  Temple  of  Yahu  (Jehovah)  in 
ElephantinS,  in  the  reign  of  Darius  II, 

333  Battle  of  Issus  in  which  Alexander  the  Great 
becomes  master  of  Syria  and  Palestine. 

274  First  Syrian  War  between  Ptolemy  II  and 
Antiochus  I. 


198  APPENDICES 

168    Antiochus  IV,  Epiphanes,  pollutes  the  temple. 
Onias  builds  a  Yahweh  temple  at  Leontopolis 
in  Egypt. 
165     Rise    of    Judas    Maccabeus.     Cleansing   of   the 

Temple. 
141     Simon  conquered  the  Acra  in  Jerusalem. 
139     Simon  gains  the  independence  of  Judea. 
135     Conflict  between  John  Hyrcanus  I  and  Antiochus 

VII.     Jerusalem  taken  by  Antiochus  VII. 
104     Aristobulus  son  of  Hyrcanus  becomes  first  Has- 
monean  king  of  Judea  (104-102). 
63    Pompey  captures  Jerusalem.    Judea  becomes  a 

Roman  province. 
47    Hyrcanus  II  made  Ethnarch  by  Caesar. 
37    Herod  made  king  of  Judea  by  the  Romans. 
17    Herod  begins  rebuilding  the  temple. 

5  Birth  of  Christ. 

6  A.  D.     Arohelaus  deposed,  and  Judah  taken  under 

the  direct  control  of  Rome. 

7  Enrolment  under  Quirinius. 
36              Pontius  Pilate  sent  to  Rome. 

41  Short  reign  of  Agrippa  I  begins  (41-44). 

44  Unsuccessful  rebellion  under  Theudas. 

52  Rebellion  which  lasted  till  66. 

66  War  declared  against  Rome. 

•  70  Jerusalem  and  the  temple  destroyed  by  Titus. 

Yahweh  temple  in  Leontopolis  closed. 

116  Uprising  of  the  Jews  under  Trajan. 

132  Uprising  of  Bar-Cochba  under  Hadrian. 

135  Downfall  of  the  Jews. 


APPENDICES 


199 


APPENDIX  n 

Kings  op  Judah  and  Israel  with  Dates 

i 

Judah 

Israel 

■t 

937  Rehoboam 

937  Jeroboam 

\ 

920  Abyam 

915  Nadab 

917  Asa 

913  Baasha 

J 

876  Jehosaphat 

889  Elah 

851  Jehoram 

887  Zimri 

). 

843  Ahazia,h 

887  Omri 

■      \ 

842  Athaliah 

875  Ahab 

y; 

836  Joash 

853  Azariah 

796  Amaziah 

851  Joram 

1 

782  Azariah  (Uzziah) 

842  Jehu 

Jotham  (Co- Regent) 

814  Jehoahaz 

\ 

737  Ahaz 

797  Jehoash 

■{ 

715  Hezekiah 

781  Jeroboam  II 

696  Manasseh 

740  Zechariah 

641  Amon 

740  ShaUum 

\ 

639  Josiah 

737  Menahem 

609  Jehoahaz 

735  Pekahiah 

608  Jehoiakim 

735  Pekah 

597  Jehoiakin 

733-722  Hoshea 

567-586  Zedekiah 

\ 

APPENDIX  m 

\ 

Kings  op  Babylonia  and  Persia  since  586  with  Dates 

Babylonia 

Persia 

1 

I 

604  Nebuchadrezzar 

559  Cyrus 

\ 

562  Amel-Marduk 

529  Cambyses 

t 

559  Nergal-shar-utsur 

522  Pseudo-Smerdis  (Gaumata) 

( 

(Nergilissar) 

522  Darius  I 

556  Labashi-Marduk 

485  Xerxes  I 

\ 

555-538  Nabuna'id  (Nabonidus) 

464  Artaxerxes  I 

424  Xerxes  H 

i 

424  Darius  H 

i 

404  Artaxerxes  11 

1 

358  Artaxerxes  1 1 1 

337  Arses 

i 

335-331  Darius  Ul 

i 

soo 


APPENDICES 


APPENDIX  IV 

Rulers  of  Egypt  and  Syria  Durdig  the  Greek  Period 
WITH  Dates 


Egypt 
322  Ptolemy  I  Soter 
285  Ptolemy  II  Philadelphus 
247  Ptolemy  III  Euergetes 
222  Ptolemy  IV  Philopator 
205  Ptolemy  V  Epiphanes 
181  Ptolemy  VI 
181  Ptolemy  VII  Philometer 


Syria 
320  Ptolemy  I  Soter 
315-301  Antigonus 
312  Seleucus  I  Nicator 
280  Antiochus  I  Soter 
261  Antiochus  II  Theos 
246  Seleucus  11  Callinicus 
226  Seleucus  III  Ceraunus 
223  Antiochus  III  The  Great 
187  Seleucus  IV  Philopator 
175  Antiochus  IV  Epiphanes 


APPENDIX  V 

Rulers  of  Syrla.  and  Judea  in  Maccabean  and  Roman 

Periods  with  Dates 

Syria 

Judea 

175  Antiochus  IV  Epiphanes 

165  Judas  Maccabeus 

164  Antiochus  V  Eupator 

161  Jonathan 

162  Demetrius  I  Soter 

143  Simon 

150  Alexander  Balas 

135  John  Hyrcanus 

145  Demetrius  11  Nicator 

105  Aristobulus  I 

138  Antiochus  Sidetes 

104  Alexander  Jannaeus 

128  Demetrius  II  Nicator 

78  Alexandra 

113  Antiochus  Grypos 

69  Aristobulus 

113  Antiochus  Cyzicenos 

63  Pompey  captures  Jerusalem 

95  Antiochus  Eusebes 

and  "Ethnarchs"  ruled  till 

86  Demetrius  111 

Herod  became  king 

83  Antiochus  Dionysus 

40  Herod  the  Great 

Tigranes  the  Armenian 

4  Archelaus 

69  Rome  defeats  Tigranes  and 

6  A.  D.  Archelaus    deposed   by 

Syria  becomes  a  Roman 

Rome 

province 

41  A.  D.  Herod  Agrippa  I 

APPENDICES  201 

APPENDIX   V    (Continued) 

Jvdea 
44-66  A.  D.  Under  Roman  Pro- 
curators : 
44  Cuspius  Fadus 
48  Tiberius  Alexander 
48  Ventidius  Cumanus 
52  Antonius  Felix 
60  Porcius  Festus 
62  Lucceius  Albinus 
64-66  Gessius  Florus 


APPENDIX  VI 

Roman  Emperors  to  Hadrian 

27  b. 

,  c.  Augustus 

14  a. 

,  D.  Tiberius 

37 

Caligula 

41 

Claudius 

54 

Nero 

68 

Galba,  Otho,  Vitellius 

69 

Vespasian 

79 

Titus 

81 

Domitian 

96 

Nerva 

98 

Trajan 

'-138 

Hadrian 

APPENDIX  Vn 

High  Priests  from  538  b.  c.  to  Caiaphas,  36  a.  d. 

538-333  Joshua  333-175  Onias  I 

Jehoiakim  Simeon  I 

EKashib  Eleazar 

Jehoiada  Manasseh 

Johanan  Omas  II 

Jaddua  Simeon  II 

Onias  III 


9m, 


175B.C. 


APPENDICES 

APPENDIX  Vn  {Coniinued) 

A.  D.  Jason 

Aristobulus  111 

Menelaus 

Jesus 

.  Alcimus 

Simon 

Jonathan 

Mattathias 

Simon 

Joseph 

John  Hyrcanus 

Joasar 

Aristobulus  I 

Eleasar 

Alexander  Jannaeus 

Jesus 

Hyrcanus  II 

Ananos 

Aristobulus  11 

Ismael 

Hyrcanus  11 

Eleasar 

Antigonus 

Simon 

Ananael 

Caiaphas  (18-36) 

APPENDICES 


203 


?  s 


<>*     s     "^     "* 
X      H     S3    2    B    2 

g:  i  tis  -9  -§  * 


■§ 


SS 


■a 

pa 


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S      1 


m 


o 

i 

a- 

en 

I 

d 


I  I? 


f    i 


a     ©4 
P-i     P-i 


>i 


204 


APPENDICES 


X 

w 

§ 

HH 

T" 

X 

i 

Q 

fe 

s 

;z; 

o 

^, 

^ 

>* 

le 

^ 

S 

^ 

^ 


I 


s 


:^ 


1-3. 

O 


•4 


APPENDICES 


205 


^1- 


^        3 

fi  g  d 


4 


S  o  2 

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S   4>   O 


INDEX 


No  attempt  has  been  made  to  include  in  this  index  the  many  names  which 
are  not  common  to  extra-biblical  and  biblical  sources. 


Abdi-Khiba,  king  of  Jerusalem,  13  £F. 

Abraham,  6,  95. 

Adad-Nirari  IV,  33. 

Ahab,  25,  28,  147. 

Ahaz,  36. 

Ahaziah,  26. 

Ahmose  I,  9,  99;  biography  of,  97. 

Alexander,  158  f. 

Alex.  Balas,  160. 

Alex.  Jannaeus,  163. 

Altaqu,  142. 

Amanus,  3. 

Amenhotep  I,  9,  100. 

Amenhotep  II,  10,  118  ff. 

Amenhotep  III,  10,  11,  121. 

Amenhotep  IV,  10,  18,  121  f. 

Ammi-ditana,  6,  8. 

'Ammu-rabi,  5. 

^mos  6:2,  37. 

Amraphel,  5. 

Amurru,  3. 

Antiochus  Epiphanes,  159. 

Apophis,  97  f. 

Apries,  143. 

Arad-Sin,  5. 

Arioch,  5. 

Artaxerxes  I,  62. 

Artaxerxes  III,  158. 

Ashurbanipal,  55  f .,  142. 

Asnapper,  55. 

Assur-nazir-pal  II,  23. 


Athaliah,  26. 
Avaris,  97,  99. 

Belshazzar,  60  f . 
Benhadad  I,  25. 
Benhadad  III,  33. 
Bit-Nmib,  17. 
Black  Obelisk,  26. 
Bmraburiash,  letter  of,  18. 

Calneh,  37. 
Calno,  37. 
Cambyses,  60,  144. 
Carchemish,  battle  of,  103,  143. 
Chedorlaomer,  5. 
Chrestus,  174. 

1  Chr.  5,  35. 

2  Chr.  22,  47. 
2  Chr.  28,  35. 

2  Chr.  32,  46,  47. 
2  Chr.  36,  57. 
2CAr.  36:22  ff.,  61. 
Cyaxeres,  60. 

Cyrus,    60,    61;    conquest   of   Asia 
Minor  by,  157  f . 

Damascus,  25,  32,  34,  41. 
Dan.  1-4,  57. 
Dan.  5,  60. 
Dan.  6  :  10,  61. 
Darius  I,  62. 


208 


INDEX 


Darius  II,  62. 
Domitian,  186  f. 

Elam,  3. 
Elassar,  5. 

Elephantine  papyri,  149  ff. 
Entemena,  4. 
Eri-Aku,  5. 

Esarhaddon,  52  £E.,  142. 
Ethbaal,   48. 
Evil-Merodach,  60. 
Ez.  26  and  29,  5T. 
Ezra  1,  61. 
Ezra  4-7,  62. 
£zra4:2,  52,  54. 
Ezra  4  :  10,  55. 

Field  of  Abram,  140. 

Gen.  14,  5. 
Gezer,  96,  140. 
Gobryus,  60. 
Gudea,  3,  7. 
Gutium,  6. 

Hadrian,  187  flf. 

Harmhab,  122. 

Harris,  papyrus,  137. 

Hatshepsut,  102  ff.,  on  the  Hyksos, 

96  f. 
Hatwaret  (Avaris),  97. 
Hazael,  25,  32,  33. 
Herod,  171  ff. 

Herodotus  on  Sennacherib,  51  f, 
Hezekiah,  46  ff. 
Hiram  of  Tyre,  38. 
Hophra,  57,  143. 
Hoshea,  36,  40. 
Hyksos,  9,  96  ff. 

Ddmaton,  10,  11,  121  f. 
Innocents,  slaughter  of,  171  f . 
Isaiah,  142. 


Is.  10:9,37. 

Is.  20,  41,  45,  46. 

Is.  36-37,  46,  47. 

75.37:38,52,54. 

Is.  39,  47. 

Is.  39  : 1,  41. 

Is.  44-45,  61. 

75.  66,  35. 

Israel,  40. 

Israel  stela,  88,  133. 

Jacob,  9. 

Jacob-el,  98. 

Jacob-her,  98. 

Jehoahaz,  40,  143. 

Jehoiakim,  57,  143. 

Jehoram,  27. 

Jehu,  25  ff.,  33,  42. 

Jer.  20-39,  57. 

Jer.  44-47,  141. 

Jer.  44:30,  143. 

Jer.  46,  143. 

Jer.  47,  143. 

Jeroboam,  26. 

Jerusalem,  12;  siege  of,  47  f.,  57  f., 
140,  143;  siege  of,  by  Ant.  Si- 
detes,  160  ff.;  fall  of,  164  ff. 

Joppa,  103. 

Joram,  25. 

Joseph,  96. 

Josephus,  177,  179. 

Judah,  44,  46. 

Kadesh,  battle  of,  125  ff. 
Karkar,  25,  26,  43  f . 
Kassites,  6,  9. 
Khammurabi,  4,  5,  6,  7. 
Khetasar,  125. 
IK.  ll:23ff.,  22. 
1  K.  14,  140. 

1  K.  22,  26,  147. 
iK.l.l,  147. 

2  K.  3,  147. 


INDEX 


2  A^  3:5,  147. 

iK.8: 15,  25. 

2  K.  9-10,  26. 

2  K.  11-13,  36. 

2  a:.  15-16,  35. 

iK.l5: 1-2,  37. 

2  X.  15  :  19,  42. 

2  /iC.  17,  41. 

2  /<:.  17-18,  42,  141. 

2  /iC.  18,  47. 

2  X.  18-19,  46,  47. 

iK.  19:9,  142. 

2/i:.  19:37,47,52,54. 

2  a:.  20,  41,  47. 

2  X.  20  :  12  ff.,  47. 

2  X.  21,  54. 

2  K.  23,  141,  143. 

2  K.  24-25,  57. 

2  iiC.  24,  143. 

2li:.  25:27  ff.,  60. 

Kudur-Mabug,  5,  8. 

Laga^h,  3,  4. 
Lars  a,  5. 
Lugal-zog-gi-si,  3,  6. 

1  Mace.  13,  159. 

Manasseh,  54. 

Megiddo,  9;  battle  of,  102,  104  ff. 

Menahem,  36,  38,  42,  48. 

Memeptah,  12,  132  f. 

Merodach-Baladan,  41,  46,  52. 

Meroe,  142. 

Mesha,  147. 

Moabite  Stone,  147. 

Nabonidus,  60. 
Naharin,  99  ff. 
Naram-Sin,  3. 
Nebuchadrezzar,  57  ff.,  143. 
Necho,  143. 
Neh.  2,  62. 


Nehemiah,  150. 
Nerva,  187. 

Omri,  23,  34,  39,  147. 
Osorkon  II,  141. 

Palermo  Stone,  89. 
Patin,  23. 

Pekah,  36,  39,  40,  42. 
Pepi  I,  90. 
Pepi  II,  91. 
Philistia,  34,  46. 
Philistines,  134  f.,  138. 
Polyhistor  and  Abydenus  on  Sen- 
nacherib, 51  f. 
Pompey,  163  ff. 
Psamtik  I,  143. 

Rameses  II,  12,  125  ff. 
Rameses  III,  134  ff. 
Rameses  IV,  138. 
Rameses  IX,  138. 
Rameses  XII,  138. 
Ramoth-Gilead,  battle  of,  26. 
Rezon,  22,  36,  38. 
Rib-Adda,  letter  of,  19. 
Riblah,  143. 
Rim-Sin,  5. 

Sahure,  89. 

Samaria,  39,  41,  42,  43. 
Samsu-ditana,  6. 
Sardanapalus,  55. 
Sardm-is,  35. 
Sargon,  41,  141. 
Sargon  of  Akkad,  3,  7. 
Sebek-Khu,  95. 
Semiramis,  35. 
Sennacherib,  46  ff.,  142. 
Sesostris  I,  92. 
Sesostris  III,  95. 
Seti  I,  12,  122  ff. 
Shabaka,  142. 


210 


INDEX 


Shalmaneser  I,  21. 
Shalmaneser  III,  25  ff. 
Shalmaneser  IV,  141. 
Shamash,  4. 
Shamshi-Adad  I,  21. 
Shamshi-Adad  III,  21. 
Shamshi-Adad  IV,  26. 
Shechem,  95. 
Sheshonk  I,  140  f . 
Shinar,  110. 
Shishak,  26,  140. 
Sunti-Shilkhak,  5. 
Sinuhe,  tale  of,  92  ff. 
Snefru,  89. 
So.  141. 

Ta'annek,  11. 
Taharka,  142. 
Tanutamon,  142. 
Tell  el-Hesy,  11. 
Thutmose  I,  9,  100  ff. 
Thutmose  II,  102  ff. 
Thutmose  III,  9,  102  ff. 
Thutmose,  IV  10,  120. 


Tidal,  6. 

Tiglath-Pileser,  22. 
Tiglath-Pileser  III,  138. 
Tiglath-Pileser  IV,  35  ff. 
Tirhakah,  142. 
Trajan,  187. 

Treaty  of  the  Hittites,  132. 
Tukulti-Ninib  I,  21. 
Tunip,  10. 
Tutenkhamon,  122. 

Umma,  3. 
Uru-Salem,  12. 
Uzziah,  37. 

Vespasian,  176  ff. 
Victory,  hynm  of,  114. 

Wenamon,  report  of,  139  f. 

Zahi,  100. 
Zech.  9  : 1,  37. 
Zedekiah,  143. 
Zulilu,  21. 


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